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| NEW ZEALAND: TE TIRITI O WAITANGI | TREATY OF WAITANGI AND 1852 CONSTITUTION ACT
Reasons for te Tiriti o Waitangi | the Treaty of Waitangi
- Post-Musket War instability and Māori efforts to secure peace.
- Declaration of Independence | He Whakaputanga 1835, received by the British Crown, influencing British policy in New Zealand.
- Expansion of British trade and settlers in New Zealand without formal government. French threat prompting concerns from some settlers.
- Role of the missionaries in facilitating the Treaty process.
Perspectives on and aftermath of te Tiriti o Waitangi | the Treaty of Waitangi (1840)
- Main articles of the 1840 Treaty of Waitangi | te Tiriti o Waitangi, including historical interpretations of these texts.
- Influence of humanitarian movement shaped by religious ideas, liberty, equality, and popular sovereignty in the Treaty terms.
- Expansion of settlement by British settlers and increasing issues around ideas of land ownership (e.g. the Wairau Incident).
- Roles of Governors Hobson, FitzRoy, and Grey between 1840 to 1846.
- Early cooperation in trade and relationships, alongside challenges to Māori authority and growing concerns over cultural and economic changes, including early protests, petitions to the Crown, and armed conflict such as the Northern War (1845–1846).
- Te Ruki Kawiti was a Ngāti Hine chief who played a key role in the Northern War (1845–1846). He led Māori forces in several battles and designed the fortified pā at Ōhaeawai and Ruapekapeka.
- Tāmati Wāka Nene was a Ngāpuhi chief who was one of the first chiefs to sign the Treaty of Waitangi in 1840 and advocated for peace and positive relations between Māori and Pākehā. During the Northern War, he sided with the Crown because he believed that continued conflict would harm Māori.
The 1852 Constitution Act (passed by the House of Commons, United Kingdom)
- Establishment of representative government through a bicameral General Assembly and six provincial councils, laying the foundations for New Zealand’s parliamentary democracy based on British constitutional traditions.
- Transition from Crown Colony rule to local self-government, enabling settler communities to elect representatives, pass laws, and shape institutions.
- Property-based franchise with relatively low property qualification for men (when compared to Britain at the time).
- Exclusion of most Māori men from the political system and voting due to the property-based franchise and Māori communal landholding practices. Traditional leadership structures based on mana and whakapapa were not incorporated into colonial governance frameworks, contributing to differing understandings and reduced representation.
- Engagement by some Māori leaders through voting, petitions, and alliances with Crown officials, reflecting strategic responses to new political frameworks.
| THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE LIBERAL ERA
Women’s suffrage
- New Zealand became the world’s first self-governing nation to grant women the right to vote in 1893.
- Women’s suffrage movement and the 1893 petition led to the enfranchisement of women and the efforts of groups such as the Women’s Christian Temperance Union and Women’s Franchise Leagues.
- Kate Sheppard was the leader of the women’s suffrage movement in New Zealand. She helped make New Zealand the first country to give women the vote in 1893.
- Meri Te Tai Mangakāhia was the first woman to speak in the Māori Parliament, advocating for Māori women’s right to vote and participate in politics.
- The historic Electoral Act was passed into law, followed by the 1893 election, where 109,461 women successfully enrolled to vote.
- In other democracies, women did not begin to gain the right to vote until after World War One.
- Women could not stand for parliament until 1919 and were not elected until 1933, 40 years after the passing of the Electoral Act.
- Iriaka Rātana became the first Māori MP in 1949, Jenny Shipley became New Zealand’s first female Prime Minister in 1997, and Georgina Beyer became the first openly transgender MP in the world in 1999.
Other features of the Liberal Era and its limits
- Women’s participation in temperance, education, and religious reform movements and in paid employment, shaping public discourse and community leadership beyond domestic roles.
- Reorganisation of Crown governance during the Liberal Era, including the rise of party politics, with formation of the Liberal Party in 1891, and increased centralisation of authority following the abolition of provincial governments.
- Universal male suffrage, introduced in 1879, applied to all men in general electorates. Māori men had already gained universal suffrage in 1867 through the creation of four Māori seats, though their representation remained limited relative to population.
- Promotion of individual rights and social welfare under liberal reform, including access to land ownership, employment protections, and pensions, framed as universal but shaped by settler institutions and uneven in practice for Māori and other minority groups.
- Social and industrial reforms: Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act (1894), Old-age Pensions Act (1898).
- Different migrant groups’ contribution to New Zealand’s development. Legal and social discrimination of some groups (e.g. Chinese Poll Tax 1881).
Reasons for dominion status and its consequences (1907–1914)
- The 1907 transition from colony to dominion and its symbolic and constitutional implications, including for Māori.
| For example, consider: - the differing interpretations historians have of the role of the separate Māori translation of the Treaty of Waitangi and te Tiriti o Waitangi as a cause of subsequent Māori protest against British sovereignty
- the consequences of the Treaty of Waitangi and te Tiriti o Waitangi on Māori mana (authority) and rangatiratanga (leadership) over their land and resources
- the causes and consequences of the New Zealand Wars 1845–1872
- the different explanations given by historians for the New Zealand Wars
- how developments in farming, transport, and trade were historically significant for New Zealand
- how different sources (e.g. military maps, settler soldier diaries and Māori oral histories) can each be used to help historians explain why the Waikato War started.
| For example, consider: - the significance and consequences of the suffrage movement on society or politics
- how the suffrage movement changed New Zealand and the world
- how different groups supported or opposed the suffrage movement
- what sources we can use to learn about suffrage movement
- how societal and industrial reforms changed over the period
- how New Zealanders reacted to gaining Dominion Status on 1907.
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| A STUDY OF A SIGNIFICANT REVOLUTION DURING THE LATE 18TH CENTURY
The French Revolution 1789-1799
The causes of the French Revolution
- The structure of French society before the Revolution, including the roles and privileges of the First, Second, and Third Estates.
- The financial crisis facing France in the late 18th century, including the consequences of war debt and the burden of taxation on the Third Estate.
- The influence of Enlightenment ideas in shaping demands for political and social reform.
- How these ideas had already influenced revolution in America and The Declaration of Independence.
How power changed hands over the course of the French Revolution
- The events of 1789, including the Tennis Court Oath and the storming of the Bastille, as key turning points in the revolution.
- The significance of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen 1789 as a statement of revolutionary principles.
- The abolition of noble and clerical privileges and the execution of King Louis XVI in 1793
- The Reign of Terror (1793-1794) as a period of political violence and instability during the revolution.
- The rise of Napoleon Bonaparte in 1799 and the end of the revolutionary period.
The consequences of the French Revolution
- The legacy of the French Revolution in showing how Enlightenment ideas about liberty, equality, and popular sovereignty could be used to create a new kind of nation based on shared rights and citizenship rather than monarchy or empire.
Alternatively, teachers can choose to cover the American Revolution (1775–1783) | EUROPEAN IMPERIAL EXPANSION c.1750–1914 WITH CASE STUDY
Chronological and geographical context
- Timeline of the emergence of European empires from the 15th century (Portugal and Spain, which were maritime empires) to the 19th century (Britain, France, and the Netherlands, which were industrialised empires).
- European empires had global reach by the late 1800s: colonies and protectorates spanning New Zealand, Canada, Asia, Africa, and the Pacific Islands.
- European empires had significant and long-lasting consequences for those countries that were colonised.
Causes of European countries’ imperial expansion c.1750–1914 (including a case study of motivations for British colonial expansion in one region)
- Sought access to new markets, raw materials, and secure trade routes.
- Aimed to outmanoeuvre rival powers and control key global communication lines.
- Motivated by missionary work, civilising ideals, and national prestige.
- Imposed formal rule where settlers, companies, or missionaries had created informal control, often in response to unrest.
- Technological advances in navigation (compass, charts), military power (rifled weaponry, steam warships), and communication (telegraph).
Case study: British expansion
Teachers should explore British colonial expansion in a region where European settlers did not dominate land or politics. The case study should highlight the complex motivations behind establishing formal colonial rule in a non-settler context.
Example case study: British expansion in India (c.1750–1914)
Initial commercial interests and indirect control
- The British East India Company (EIC) began as a trading enterprise, establishing posts in Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras.
- The decline of the Mughal Empire created opportunities for British influence through treaties, alliances, and military victories (e.g. Battle of Plassey, 1757).
- The EIC aimed to secure trade routes, access raw materials, and outcompete European rivals, especially the French.
Expansion through conflict and diplomacy
- The EIC expanded its territory via wars with Indian powers (e.g. Marathas, Mysore) and strategic alliances with local rulers.
- By the early 1800s, large parts of India were under Company control, though many princely states retained nominal autonomy.
Collapse of Company rule and shift to Crown control
- The 1857 Indian Rebellion revealed deep resentment toward Company rule and led to its dissolution.
- In 1858, the British government took direct control, establishing the British Raj.
- Strategic concerns (e.g. Russian expansion in Central Asia) and administrative inefficiencies prompted reforms.
Formalisation of imperial rule
- The British introduced railways, telegraphs, and legal systems to consolidate control and integrate India into the imperial economy.
- In 1876, Queen Victoria was declared Empress of India, symbolising formal imperial authority.
- Queen Victoria ruled from 1837 to 1901 with limited political power in a constitutional monarchy. Her reign saw the growth of the British Empire and gradual changes in voting rights.
- By 1914, India was governed as a mix of directly ruled provinces and semi-autonomous princely states.
| For example, consider: - why people in France sought to change their systems of government
- how power changed hands over the course of the French Revolution
- the consequences of changing power during the French Revolution
- the significance of the French Revolution in shaping ideas about government and society.
| For example, consider: - the reasons for European imperial expansion
- the causes of the Indian Rebellion
- why Britain created protectorates in East Africa or the British Raj in India
- the sources we can use to understand motivations for British rule in East Africa or India
- how far different groups supported or opposed the creation of British protectorates in East Africa
- the different explanations given by historians for European expansion
- expansion to New Zealand.
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| THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION c.1760–1840
The causes of the Industrial Revolution: economic and social conditions in Britain in the late 18th century
- Agricultural improvement, availability of energy resources, established patterns of local and overseas trade, and stable political and financial conditions.
Technological change
- Mechanisation of textile production through inventions (e.g. spinning jenny, power loom).
- Use of steam engines to power machinery and pumps in industrial settings.
- Advancements in medicine and surgery (e.g. Joseph Lister and the development of antiseptic).
Societal change
- Increase in factory, mining, and domestic labour with long working hours and hazardous conditions.
- The Poor Law Amendment Act 1834.
- Increased access to basic education, as demand for a literate and skilled workforce led to reforms and wider school provision.
- Rapid expansion of towns through urbanisation and overcrowding.
- Marked increases in real incomes and access to goods and services due to rising employment, mass production, and growing consumer markets.
Economic change
- Increased production of textiles and manufactured goods for domestic use and export.
- Development of new transport infrastructure, including canals and turnpike roads.
- Expansion of global trade networks connecting Britain with Africa, Asia, and the Pacific.
- Rising demand for slave-produced goods like cotton, tobacco, and sugar through the triangular trade that developed into the Transatlantic Slave Trade.
- The Transatlantic Slave Trade was a major part of global trade during European expansion and the Industrial Revolution. Millions of West African people were forcibly taken across the Atlantic Ocean via the Middle Passage to work on plantations in the Americas. Goods produced by these enslaved people were exported to Europe. European ships then carried manufactured goods to West Africa to trade for more enslaved people.
- Overall growth in global economic activity and wider access to manufactured goods, though prosperity remained unevenly distributed.
Political change
- The industrial middle class gained influence, securing voting rights for middle-class men in 1832 and advocating for greater political representation.
- Working-class communities organised protests over poor conditions and lack of representation, leading to the 1867 and 1884 Reform Acts, which extended voting rights to urban and rural working-class men.
- These movements also supported abolition, contributing to the end of the Transatlantic Slave Trade in 1807 and slavery in 1833.
| | For example, consider: - the causes of the Industrial Revolution
- the consequences of the Industrial Revolution on society or technology or politics
- how the Industrial Revolution changed Britain and the world
- what sources we can use to learn about the Industrial Revolution
- what different types of sources can reveal about children’s experiences in textile mills (e.g. factory inspection reports, diary entries from child workers, cartoons and newspaper illustrations).
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