| Cells and organisation (See Year 7, Body Systems) - The invention of the microscope allowed scientists to observe cells, leading to major advances in biology.
- Cells are the fundamental unit of living organisms and contain parts (structures) called organelles.
- Organelles are structures inside cells that have specialised functions:
- the cell membrane is a thin layer around the cell that controls what enters and leaves
- the cytoplasm is a jelly-like substance inside the cell where most cell activities happen
- the nucleus is a structure that contains genetic material (DNA), which provides instructions for how a cell is shaped and how it works
- mitochondria break down glucose (sugar) via cellular respiration
- the vacuole is a fluid-filled space that stores water and nutrients; it is large in plant cells and smaller in animal cells
- the cell wall is a rigid outer layer found in plant cells that gives strength and shape
- the chloroplasts are green structures in plant cells that use sunlight to make sugar (glucose) through photosynthesis.
- Plant cells have a cell wall, chloroplasts, and a large vacuole.
- Animal cells do not have a cell wall or chloroplasts.
- Cells can be specialised for different jobs, such as movement, storage, or sending signals.
- Organisms can be single-celled (unicellular) or be made of more than one cell (multicellular).
- Unicellular organisms have structural adaptations that are unique to their environment and way of life (e.g. euglena has a tail to swim and can make its own sugars for fuel through photosynthesis).
- Organisms which are too small to be seen without a microscope are called microorganisms. They are typically unicellular (e.g. bacteria, yeast (fungi), protists).
- Multicellular organisms are organised hierarchically: from cells to tissues to organs to systems to organisms.
- Robert Hooke (1635–1703) invented the microscope and was the first to describe cell structures, laying the foundation for cell theory.
| Genetic material and inheritance - Sexual reproduction involves the fusion of gametes, each carrying half the genetic information from a parent. This process is called fertilisation (see Year 5, Body Systems).
- Gametes are reproductive cells (e.g. sperm, egg, pollen) that carry one set of chromosomes.
- Chromosomes are structures that carry DNA, the genetic material that contains instructions for how cells function.
- Offspring inherit a unique combination of genetic material, resulting in both similarities and differences among individuals.
- In humans, biological sex is determined by the combination of sex chromosomes inherited at fertilisation (XX usually results in a female, XY usually results in a male), although variations in chromosomal patterns can result in diverse sex characteristics.
- Gregor Mendel (1822–1884) founded the science of genetics through his experiments on inheritance in pea plants, establishing the laws of heredity.
Adaptation and evolution - Individuals of the same species have differences in their genetic material. This is due to mutations’ changing DNA and sexual reproduction’s creating new combinations of DNA.
- These differences mean that some orgabnisms within the same species are better adapted to their environment than others.
- When there is selection pressure, better-adapted organisms are more likely to survive and reproduce and therefore to pass their genetic material on to offspring.
- Selection pressure is a feature of the habitat or environment that means not all individuals will survive or reproduce, such as predation or competition for space.
- Evolution is the change in the genetic make-up of a population over many generations.
- Adaptation can lead to evolution when inherited variations that improve survival or reproduction become more common over generations (e.g. elaborate peacock tails; insulating fur on Arctic foxes; different juvenile and adult forms in horoeka, pōkākā, and putaputawētā plants, likely an adaptation that reduced grazing by moa).
- Charles Darwin (1809–1882) discovered that orchids have highly specialised floral structures that promote cross-pollination by insects. He showed that these adaptations evolved through natural selection, and predicted specific insect pollinators based on flower morphology, among many other discoveries.
- Alfred Wallace (1823–1913) co-developed the theory of natural selection and pioneered the field of biogeography through his studies in Southeast Asia.
| Cells and organisation - Investigating and recording the structure of cells, identifying the main cellular components visible (cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, vacuoles, chloroplast), and communicating the findings using labelled diagrams or digital images
- Interpreting cell structures to infer whether an organism is an animal or a plant using evidence
- Comparing the size and scale of cells of different organisms (plant, animal, protists) using microscopes or digital images
| Genetic material and inheritance - Recognising and interpreting patterns in inherited traits across individuals or populations (e.g. monohybrid cross demonstrating sex determination)
- Explaining the connection between the roles of cells, chromosomes, and DNA in inheritance and development
Adaptation and evolution - Comparing how specific traits influence survival or reproduction in different environments (e.g. webbed feet in aquatic habitats vs dry land)
- Evaluating evidence from case examples to infer how adaptation contributes to evolutionary change (e.g. beak shape changes in finch populations over generations, light and dark colour variations in peppered moths)
|
| Diffusion - Diffusion is when particles spread from where there are more particles to where there are fewer.
- Oxygen and carbon dioxide particles move into and out of cells by diffusion.
- Adolf Fick (1829–1901) formulated Fick’s laws of diffusion, describing how substances move through different media and influencing physiology and physics.
Cellular respiration - Respiration is a process in cells where sugar (glucose) is broken down using oxygen, to release chemical energy.
- Carbon dioxide and water are produced as ‘waste’ during respiration.
- Chemical energy released during respiration is used by cells for movement, growth, and repair.
- Joseph Priestley (1733–1804) discovered oxygen and demonstrated that plants renew air quality, contributing to early understanding of photosynthesis and atmospheric chemistry.
- Note: Respiration at this level refers to aerobic respiration only. Students do not need to learn about anaerobic respiration at this stage.
Photosynthesis - Photosynthesis is a process that plants, algae, and some bacteria use to make their own fuel in the form of sugar (glucose) using light, water, and carbon dioxide.
- The sugars made during photosynthesis can be stored as starch (for fuel) or used to build materials like cellulose (which gives plants strength and structure).
- Leaves are adapted for photosynthesis by being thin and containing light-capturing organelles called chloroplasts.
- Photosynthesis changes the relative abundance of the gases oxygen and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, creating conditions that support other life on Earth.
- Jan Ingenhousz (1730–1799) discovered that green plants produce oxygen during photosynthesis in sunlight, confirming the role of light in plant respiration.
| Reproductive structures and processes - Many plants and animals reproduce sexually using specialised cells and organs that enable fertilisation and development.
- Flowers contain reproductive structures such as anthers, stigmas, styles, ovaries, and pollen.
- Flowering plants reproduce through pollination (e.g. by wind or insects), fertilisation, seed and fruit formation, seed dispersal, and germination.
- Human reproduction includes fertilisation and development through stages called zygote, embryo, and foetus, leading to birth.
- Puberty is a life stage when organisms develop reproductive ability.
- The menstrual cycle in females involves ovulation and menstruation and is regulated by hormones.
- In some species, reproductive tissue is shed cyclically if fertilisation does not occur (e.g. menstruation in humans).
- Sperm production in males is regulated by hormones.
- A hormone is a chemical substance (e.g. oestrogen, progesterone, testosterone), carried by the blood, which alters the activity of one or more specific target organs.
- Karl Ernst von Baer (1792–1876) discovered the mammalian ovum and laid the foundation for modern embryology.
- George Washington Corner (1889–1981) studied hormonal regulation and reproductive anatomy, contributing to the understanding of human development and fertility.
Digestive system - The human digestive system includes the mouth, teeth, tongue, salivary glands, oesophagus, stomach, liver, pancreas, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, and anus, which work together to digest food.
- Digestion involves mechanical and chemical processes:
- mechanical digestion includes chewing and churning
- chemical digestion uses chemicals, such as stomach acid, bile from the liver, and enzymes from saliva, the stomach, and the pancreas, to break down food.
- Digestive organs and tissues have adaptations for their functions, such as teeth for chewing, villi for absorption, and peristalsis for moving food.
- Beneficial bacteria in the gut support digestion and health.
- A healthy diet includes carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals, fibre, and water.
- Digested nutrients are used as building blocks for growth and other life processes.
- William Beaumont (1785–1853) studied chemical digestion in the stomach through experiments on a patient with a gastric fistula.
Gas exchange - Breathing, gas exchange, and cellular respiration are connected processes that involve the movement and use of oxygen and carbon dioxide.
- The human respiratory system includes the nose, mouth, trachea, lungs (bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli), diaphragm, and capillaries, each adapted for efficient gas exchange.
- Breathing involves changes in air pressure and volume, controlled by the diaphragm, ribs, and intercostal muscles (see Year 6, Motion and Forces).
- Plant leaves are adapted for gas exchange through features such as stomata, guard cells, and a thin, flat shape.
| Diffusion, cellular respiration, and photosynthesis - Interpreting the relationship between diffusion, photosynthesis, and cellular respiration, explaining how glucose and oxygen produced by plants in the chloroplasts are used by cells to release chemical energy in the mitochondria, and modelling these processes using diagrams or flow charts (see Year 7, Organism Diversity)
- Designing and carrying out investigations into the requirements for photosynthesis in plants and communicating findings, including firsthand experimentation where possible (e.g. starch tests, light vs dark growth experiments)
| Reproductive structures and processes - Dissecting or observing flowers to identify reproductive structures (e.g. anther, stigma, ovary) and describing their roles in pollination and fertilisation
- Observing reproductive cells or tissues at a microscopic level (e.g. pollen grains, ovules, sperm cells)
- Investigating seed dispersal mechanisms by testing and measuring dispersal distance or direction using real or simulated plant materials
- Comparing reproductive structures in humans and flowering plants using labelled models or diagrams
Digestive system - Comparing mechanical and chemical digestion, identifying the roles of key organs and representing these processes visually
- Designing and carrying out investigations into the role of enzymes in digestion, using models or experiments to interpret how they break down food (e.g. amylase and starch)
- Describing structural adaptations that support efficient digestion (e.g. teeth, villi, peristalsis)
Gas exchange - Explaining the movement of gases in the respiratory system, using a pressure model and including simple measurements of lung volume
- Modelling and explaining the structure and function of the human respiratory system and communicating how each part supports gas exchange
|
| Ecosystem interactions - Ecosystems are composed of biotic and abiotic factors, which interact with each other and are important to the survival of organisms.
- Abiotic (physical) factors include air, water, temperature, light, and minerals.
- Biotic factors include living or once-living organisms in the ecosystem.
- Organisms need fuel (sugars) and nutrients to carry out life processes.
- The Sun is the primary source of energy on Earth (light and heat).
- Energy transfers and nutrients flow through food chains and food webs, through producers, consumers, and decomposers, and including processes such as photosynthesis and respiration.
- Human activity and technology impact the environment.
- Humans benefit from managing other species to produce material (food, clothing, building materials, medicines, dyes, fuels).
- Humans are part of ecosystems and can change them through their actions (e.g. clearing land, growing crops, changing waterways, planting trees, restoring habitats).
- Humans can support the health of the environment (e.g. composting, reusing, producing less waste, planting native plants).
- Ernst Haeckel (1834–1919) defined the term ‘ecology’ and studied the relationships between organisms and their environments, influencing evolutionary biology.
- Rachel Carson (1907–1964) pioneered environmental science through her work in marine biology and her book Silent Spring, which raised awareness of ecological harm.
| | Ecosystem interactions - Explaining how humans benefit from other organisms and natural resources and evaluating the importance of biodiversity in daily life (e.g. using plants for food, water from rivers, wood for building)
- Evaluating ways humans can positively impact ecosystems and communicating actions that support kaitiakitanga (e.g. planting trees, composting, recycling, growing food, planting native species)
- Planning and conducting investigations into abiotic factors (e.g. temperature, light) using tools (e.g. probes) and representing findings using graphs or tables with correct labels and units
| |
