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NZC - English (Years 0-6)

Year 0-6 English Learning Area. From 1 January 2025 this content is part of the statement of official policy relating to teaching, learning, and assessment of English in all English medium state and state-integrated schools in New Zealand.

Artwork for the English Learning Area

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NZC – English

Years 0‑6

  

NZC – English

Phase 1 – Years 0‑3

  

NZC – English

Phase 2 – Years 4‑6

Orientation of the English Year 0–6 Learning Area

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About this resource

This page provides the Year 0-6 part of the English learning area of the New Zealand Curriculum, the official document that sets the direction for teaching, learning, and assessment in all English medium state and state-integrated schools in New Zealand. In English, students study, use, and enjoy language and literature communicated orally, visually, or in writing. It comes into effect on 1 January 2025. The Year 7 to 13 content is provided on a companion page.

We have also provided the English Year 0-6 curriculum in PDF format. There are different versions available for printing (spreads), viewing online (single page), and to view by phase. You can access these using the icons below. Use your mouse and hover over each icon to see the document description.

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    The following material on the New Zealand Curriculum, whakapapa of Te Mātaiaho and overview of the learning areas provides context when using the English Year 0-6 Learning Area. It is not part of the statement of official policy.

    The New Zealand Curriculum – knowledge-rich, informed by the science of learning, and framed within the whakapapa of Te Mātaiaho

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    Mātai aho tāhūnui,
    Mātai aho tāhūroa,
    Hei takapau wānanga
    E hora nei.

    Lay the kaupapa down
    And sustain it,
    The learning here
    Laid out before us.

     

    The New Zealand curriculum is knowledge-rich. It prioritises and explicitly describes what must be taught each year and is deliberately sequenced to enable students to build knowledge, skills, and competencies systematically over time. It supports teachers to design teaching programmes that bring learning to life in the classroom, using local, national, and global contexts.

    The science of learning informs curriculum sequencing and teaching practice. The curriculum builds on scientific understanding to identify five characteristics of how we learn:

    We learn best when we experience a sense of belonging in the learning environment and feel valued and supported.

    Students bring with them different cultural identities, knowledge, belief systems, and experiences. They need to see that these are valued and reflected in a school environment characterised by strong relationships and mutual respect. Students’ sense of belonging is enhanced by sensitivity to their individual needs, emotions, cultures, and beliefs.

    A new idea or concept is always interpreted through, and learned in association with, existing knowledge.

    The amount of existing knowledge students have, and the degree to which that knowledge is interconnected in long-term memory, influence both the quality and ease with which they can build on that knowledge. Recognising and drawing on students’ prior knowledge therefore improves their learning.

    Establishing knowledge in a well-organised way in long-term memory reduces students’ cognitive load when building on that knowledge. It also enables them to apply and transfer the knowledge.

    Establishing new knowledge and skill in long-term memory requires active engagement and multiple opportunities to engage with them, practise them, and connect them to existing knowledge structures. When knowledge is well organised in long-term memory, students are more likely to be able to build on it and apply it in novel ways. If knowledge is not well established in long-term memory, students’ working memory is likely to be overloaded when they attempt to build on or apply it. This cognitive overload can cause confusion, anxiety, and disengagement.

    Our social and emotional wellbeing directly impacts on our ability to learn new knowledge.

    Social and emotional wellbeing reduces anxiety, which frees cognitive capacity to learn new knowledge and skills, leading to deeper, more durable learning. Conversely, anxiety and negative emotions inhibit students’ ability to learn. The factors that impact positively or negatively on social and emotional wellbeing vary between students. The influence of these factors is dynamic – it fluctuates over time, even during the course of a single day.

    Motivation is critical for wellbeing and engagement in learning

    Motivation develops when students feel that three basic needs are met: autonomy – developing increasing self-direction in learning; competence – experiencing success in learning and seeing oneself as a successful learner; social connection – belonging and contributing to a group from which one learns. Success in learning helps to build motivation.


    The whakapapa of Te Mātaiaho

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    The design of this framework encompasses seven curriculum components. Te Mātaiaho as a whole weaves together these components, all of which begin with the word ‘mātai’, meaning to observe, examine, and deliberately consider.

    Te Mātaiaho graphic showing the seven components; Mātairangi - The guiding kaupapa, Mātainuku - Creating a foundation, Mātaitipu - Vision for young people, Mātairea - Supporting progress, Mātaiaho - Weaving learning within and across learning areas, Mātaioho - School curriculum design and review, and Mātaiahikā - Connecting to place and community.

    Mātairangi | The guiding kaupapa
    The overarching kaupapa guiding the curriculum, based on the science of learning and ensuring excellent and equitable outcomes for students.
    Mātai ki te rangi, homai te kauhau wānanga ki uta, ka whiti he ora. | Look beyond the horizon, and draw near the bodies of knowledge that will take us into the future.
    The outer rings represent our guiding kaupapa.

    Mātainuku | Creating a foundation
    The curriculum principles (e.g., holding high expectations, and enabling all students to access the full scope of the curriculum).
    Mātai ki te whenua, ka tiritiria, ka poupoua. | Ground and nurture the learning.
    The centre rings represent the foundation and calls to action.

    Mātaitipu | Vision of young people
    The educational vision of young people, as conceived by young people.
    Mātaitipu hei papa whenuakura. | Grow and nourish a thriving community.
    The inner rings and circular space represent the vision and students at the centre.

    Mātairea | Supporting progress
    The whole schooling pathway and the overarching focus for year-by-year learning and progress.
    Mātai ka rea, ka pihi hei māhuri. | Build and support progress.
    Niho kurī lines represent building and supporting the development of students.

    Mātaiahikā | Relationships with tangata whenua and local community
    Learning through relationships with tangata whenua and local communities.
    Mātai kōrero ahiahi. | Keep the hearth occupied, maintain the stories by firelight.
    Poutama curves represent relationships with tangata whenua and the community.

    Mātaioho | National curriculum – contextualised
    The process by which schools bring the national curriculum to life through local, national, and global contexts.
    Mātai oho, mātai ara, whītiki, whakatika. | Awaken, arise, and prepare for action.
    Unaunahi scales represent wealth of knowledge, purpose, and know-how.

    Mātaiaho | Learning areas
    The eight learning areas, which each include a purpose, big ideas, knowledge, and practices, year-by-year.
    Mātai rangaranga te aho tū, te aho pae. | Weave the learning strands together.
    Taratara-a-kae niho notches represent diversity, resilience, and mana.

     

    Learning Areas

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    The curriculum has eight learning areas: English, the arts, health and physical education, learning languages, mathematics and statistics, science, social sciences, and technology. Together they provide the basis for a broad, general education for the first four phases of learning (years 0–10) and collectively lay a foundation for specialisation in phase 5 (years 11–13). Each learning area is knowledge-rich. This knowledge has been carefully chosen to support all students in their schooling pathway and is framed using Understand, Know, and Do:

    • Understand – the deep and enduring big ideas and themes that students develop understanding of over the phases 
    • Know – the meaningful and important content, concepts, and topics at each phase that enrich students’ understanding of the big ideas and themes and that students study using the practices 
    • Do – the practices (skills, strategies, and processes) that bring rigour to learning and support the development of the key competencies.

    A progression model provides the structure that sequences the knowledge. It supports all students to develop greater:

    • breadth and depth of knowledge and understanding, through engaging with increasingly complex and ambiguous contexts 
    • refinement and sophistication in their use of competencies, practices, strategies, processes, and skills 
    • ability to connect, transfer, and apply new learning in meaningful contexts 
    • knowledge and awareness of themselves as learners 
    • effectiveness when working with others.

    Content of the learning areas

    Knowledge and progression are reflected in how the learning areas are organised. Each learning area has the following main sections:

    Purpose statement and UKD overview

    A purpose statement describes the learning area’s contribution to the lives of students. It is followed by an overview of Understand, Know, and Do. This gives a view of the big ideas, themes, concepts, topics, and practices that underpin the learning area.

    Teachers use the purpose statement and UKD overview to develop an understanding of the learning area, so that they can share its benefits with students.

    Learning area structure

    For each learning area, this section outlines its structure and the changes it undergoes over five phases of learning, particularly in the final phase, where students specialise and choose from a range of subjects.

    There are five phases of learning, spanning years 0–13. Each phase covers two to three years of schooling, which reflects how most schools organise learning across year levels.

    A critical focus for each phase establishes a sustained, strengths-based, focus on the student and their social, emotional, and cognitive learning at this stage of their schooling journey. Each critical focus builds on the phase before and is reflected in the content of the learning area for the phase.

    The critical focuses are: 

    • Phase 1 (years 0–3): Thriving in environments rich in literacy and maths 
    • Phase 2 (years 4–6): Expanding horizons of knowledge, and collaboration 
    • Phase 3 (years 7–8): Seeing ourselves in the wider world and advocating with and for others 
    • Phase 4 (years 9–10): Having a purpose and being empathetic and resilient 
    • Phase 5 (years 11–13): Navigating pathways and developing agency to help shape the future.

    Teachers use the critical focus of each phase in their selection and design of topics and activities.

    Teaching guidance

    Each learning area also draws from the science of learning and wider education theory to provide a knowledge base and guidance for teachers. Teachers use this to help them make purposeful decisions about how to teach the learning area’s content in ways that are inclusive of all students.

    The guidance is organised under three headings:

    • Designing a comprehensive teaching and learning programme 
    • Using assessment to inform teaching 
    • Planning.

    Progress outcomes

    In each learning area, there is one comprehensive progress outcome for each phase.

    The progress outcomes act as signposts that describe expectations for what students should sufficiently understand, know, and be able to do at key points in the schooling pathway.

    The content of each progress outcome is organised using the Understand–Know–Do framework. While the Understand statements repeat across the five phases, students’ depth of understanding increases as their knowledge of the learning area’s content (Know) grows and their use of the practices (Do) develops.

    When read alongside the progress outcomes for prior and subsequent phases, the progress outcome for a phase helps teachers maintain an overview of the learning they are building on and the learning they are preparing students for. Progress outcomes are therefore key for planning, along with the more detailed teaching sequences (described below).

    Teachers also use the progress outcomes to help them form a comprehensive view of each student's progress, achievement, learning needs, and strengths. Schools can use information from twice-yearly, standardised assessment tools to help develop this view, which can also be used to report to parents.

    In forming a view of progress and achievement, teachers should ask themselves:

    • Are students using learning from the progress outcome of the previous phase to make sense of new learning in the current phase? This demonstrates how well they can connect new learning to what they already know. It generally occurs in the first year of a phase. 
    • Are students consolidating the learning expressed in the progress outcome in a wide range of contexts? This demonstrates how well and confidently they are using their new learning. This generally occurs in the second year of the phase. 
    • Are students secure in the learning described in the progress outcome within an increasingly complex range of contexts? Are they showing greater depth of knowledge, understanding, and application as they use their new learning and prepare for the challenges of the next phase? This generally occurs towards the end of the final year of the phase. 
    • Are there gaps in learning that are going to restrict students' ability to make progress in the next phase of their learning? This is a question teachers should ask across all years of the phase, drawing on the section Using assessment to inform teaching to consider how to adapt their practices to meet students' learning needs.

    Leaders must have a mechanism and strategies for prioritising and closely monitoring urgent action, when required, to support classroom teaching. Where teaching needs to be targeted and intensified to meet specific needs for finite periods, leaders draw on a breadth of available supports, as required.

    Teaching sequences

    Each phase has a year-by-year teaching sequence. These sequences support teachers to know what to teach and when and how to teach it as students work towards the progress outcome for the phase. They have been organised to support students to revisit ideas, knowledge, and practices in ways that deepen their learning and enable them to use it at the next phase.

    There are two parts in a teaching sequence: statements of what to teach, and ‘teaching considerations’ for how to teach:

    • the ‘what to teach’ statements are preceded by the stem ‘Informed by prior learning ...’, which reminds teachers to use their professional judgment and assessment information when selecting what content to teach 
    • the teaching considerations help teachers to know ‘how to teach’ this content in response to students’ prior knowledge, strengths, and experiences.

    The teaching sequence tables should be viewed both vertically and horizontally. Looking down the columns helps teachers know what to plan for in a year’s programme. Looking across the rows at the statements for the same concept in the preceding and following years helps teachers to recognise prior learning that students may come with and to consider how they might extend this year’s learning. It also helps teachers to form a more detailed view of their students’ progress, and it is a strong support when planning for mixed-level classes.

    The approach of the year-by-year teaching sequences changes in phase 5, as the content becomes more discipline-focused.

    Te Mātaiaho | The New Zealand Curriculum

    English – Years 0‑6

    (statement of official government policy)

    Ko te reo tōku tuakiri, ko te reo tōku ahurei, ko te reo te ora.
    Language is my identity; language is my uniqueness; language is life.
     

    Board requirements


    Schools and kura must give effect to the learning area English Years 0–6.

    English Years 0–6 is published by the Minister of Education under section 90(1) of the Education and Training Act 2020 (the Act) as a foundation curriculum policy statement and a national curriculum statement. These are the statements of official policy in relation to the teaching of English (including literacy) that give direction to each school’s curriculum and assessment responsibilities (section 127 of the Act), teaching and learning programmes (section 164 of the Act), and monitoring and reporting of student performance (section 165 of the Act and associated Regulations). School boards must ensure that they and their principal and staff give effect to these statements.

    The sections of English Years 0–6 that are published as a national curriculum statement are the Understand–Know–Do (UKD) progress outcomes for each phase (UKD for phase 1 and UKD for phase 2). These set out what students are expected to learn over their time at school, including the desirable levels of knowledge, understanding, and skill to be achieved in English.

    The rest is published as a foundation curriculum policy statement. This sets out expectations for teaching, learning, and assessment that underpin the national curriculum statement and give direction for effective English (including literacy / reading and writing) teaching and learning programmes.

    The statements come into effect on 1 January 2025. They replace curriculum levels 1–3 of the existing English national curriculum statement (learning area). The remainder of the existing English national curriculum statement remains in force. Apart from those for Mathematics and statistics Years 0–8, other existing foundation curriculum policy statements and national curriculum statements for the New Zealand Curriculum remain in place.

    Schools should choose the appropriate English statements for their students’ needs. This means that intermediate and secondary schools may choose to make use of the new statements for some students if they are currently working below curriculum level 4, or that primary schools may choose to make use of the existing statements for some students if they are already working above phase 2.

    Reading, writing, and maths teaching time requirements

    The teaching and learning of reading, writing,1 and maths2 is a priority for all schools. So that all students are getting sufficient teaching and learning time for reading, writing, and maths, each school board with students in years 0–8 must, through its principal and staff, structure their teaching and learning programmes and/or timetables to provide:

    • 10 hours per week of teaching and learning focused on supporting students’ progress and achievement in reading and writing, and recognising the important contribution oral language development makes, particularly in the early phases of learning 
    • 5 hours per week of teaching and learning focused on supporting students’ progress and achievement in maths.

    Where reading, writing, and/or maths teaching and learning time is occurring within the context of national curriculum statements other than English or mathematics and statistics, the progression of students’ reading, writing, and/or maths dispositions, knowledge, and skills at the appropriate level must be explicitly and intentionally planned for and attended to.

    Purpose Statement

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    In the English learning area, students study, use, and engage with language and texts.

    Learning in English helps students develop an understanding of the shared codes and conventions of texts and to enjoy and celebrate the beauty and richness of classic and contemporary literature.

    The English learning area enables students to access the thoughts and perspectives of others, to walk in different worlds, and to broaden their horizons by experiencing others’ values, ideas, and viewpoints. Exploring texts from different times and places helps students to see how some ideas and language change, while others stay the same. Making meaning of texts provides opportunities for students to strengthen their knowledge and understanding of different perspectives from Aotearoa New Zealand and the wider world.

    As text critics, students come to understand how language and texts work and how they change over time, giving them the knowledge and skills to interpret and challenge texts and to create their own meaningful texts. As text creators, students are encouraged to see themselves as members of literary and digital communities, by contributing their own stories and ideas and interpreting the stories and ideas of others.

    The English learning area offers meaningful opportunities for students to connect with and use their languages, including te reo Māori and New Zealand Sign Language (NZSL), and their diverse cultural knowledge as resources for learning. The use and development of first and heritage languages enable stronger language and literacy learning and can lead to improved educational outcomes and wellbeing for multilingual learners.

    Literacy in English is critical for students to be able to engage successfully with all curriculum learning areas. Being literate and mastering the foundations of oral and written language enable students to be confident and competent learners across the curriculum.

    The English learning area plays an important part in developing students’ capacities to think critically and express themselves coherently, fluently, and ethically as active members of society.

    Understand-Know-Do overview

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    NZC - English Understand-Know-Do diagram showing the three strands weaving together into the learning that matters. Understand is described as big ideas and themes. Know is described as content, concepts, and topics. Do is described as practices (skills, strategies, and processes).

    Understand

    Understand describes the deep and enduring big ideas in the English learning area that students develop over phases 1–5.

    Communication depends on shared codes and conventions. | E kore te whakawhiti kōrero e haere ki te kore he kawa, he tikanga e mōhiotia ana e te katoa.

    Shared codes and conventions enable us to make sense of what is heard, read, and seen. They change over time and are used differently in different contexts. How we use language in Aotearoa New Zealand (including accuracy, fluency, comprehension, and expression) has been shaped by our histories and linguistic heritages, and the encounters between them.

    Language and literature give us insights into ourselves and others. | Mā ō tātou reo me ngā tātai kōrero ka mārama tātou ki a tātou anō, ki tangata kē anō hoki.

    Through our encounters with literature and other texts, we learn more about ourselves and come to understand and appreciate more about other people and the world around us. As we grow as text creators, we develop our own voice and identity and make our own unique contributions. This enables us to further understand ourselves and others, and helps others to better understand us.

    The stories of Aotearoa New Zealand are unique and special. | He taonga tuku iho ahurei ngā pūrākau o Aotearoa, nō konei taketake.

    Through the literatures of New Zealand and the Pacific, we understand where we have come from, who we are, and what it means to live in Aotearoa New Zealand. The stories, authors, and languages of New Zealand represent knowledge and experiences shared across time and place, and connect us to global literary and linguistic traditions.

    Stories are a source of joy and nourishment. | Hei puna harikoa, hei puna waiora hoki ō tātou pūrākau.

    Reading, hearing, and creating stories provide opportunities to experience different worlds through creativity, imagination, and interaction. Stories may be classic or contemporary, fiction or non-fiction, narrative or non-narrative. They may cross boundaries in relation to mode and medium. Broadening and deepening an intellectual and aesthetic appreciation of classic and contemporary stories makes our lives fuller and richer.

    Literature, language, and texts express, influence, and explore perspectives and ideas. | Kei ngā mātatuhi, kei te reo, kei ngā tuhinga hoki te whakaahuatanga o te mana tangata, mana rōpū.

    Literature and language have been used throughout history to express, challenge, promote, and influence perspectives and ideas. Recognising and understanding the impact that literature and language can have enables us to explore the development and representation of ideas, events, and relationships in different contexts and at different points in time.

    Know

    Know describes the meaningful and important English learning area content, concepts, and topics through which students develop understanding of the big ideas.

    Text purposes and audiences | Ngā whāinga me ngā hunga mā rātou ngā tuhinga

    Texts are shaped for particular purposes and with particular audiences in mind. Text purposes and audiences focuses on why texts are shaped the way they are (the purposes) and who texts are shaped for (the audiences). All other aspects of a text (including its ideas and use of language) are in service of the text’s purpose. Understanding the purposes and audiences of texts enables us to consider our own use of texts and their impact (positive and negative).

    Ideas within, across, and beyond texts | Ngā ariā

    All texts carry ideas and help us to form our ideas about the world. Ideas within, across, and beyond texts focuses on the knowledge needed to identify, respond to, and express ideas across all forms of texts. It helps us to act as literary critics who make evidence-based evaluations and judgments about texts and the ideas of the creators. Exploring ideas in texts helps us to think about our place in New Zealand and the wider world.

    Features and structures of language | Ngā āhuatanga reo

    Features and structures of language is about the codes and conventions used to make meaning in texts and to structure texts, particularly literary texts. These codes and conventions include both the technical conventions that help texts make sense and the more specialised conventions of particular text forms. As we learn about language and its history, we come to appreciate how it affects how we see the world, ourselves, and each other.

    Do

    Do describes the English learning area practices, strategies, processes, and skills that are used to both learn and apply the big ideas and concepts.

    Comprehending and creating texts | Te whakamahi rautaki ki te whai māramatanga

    Comprehending and creating texts focuses on the processes and strategies required to make sense of texts and to create texts that make sense. It enables us to interpret and create texts in written, visual, and oral modes.

    Critical analysis | Te tātari arohaehae

    Critical analysis involves close reading, viewing, and listening to texts in order to interpret, appreciate, and challenge them. It enables us to make connections within, across, and beyond texts by analysing the relationships between language and ideas in the texts. When we consider and respectfully discuss different perspectives on texts with others, we develop new insights.

    Reading for pleasure | Te pānui hei whakangahau, hei whakapārekareka

    Reading for pleasure involves choosing a variety of texts (including written texts) based on our preferences and interests.

    Connecting through storytelling | Te tūhono mā te whakawhiti kōrero

    Connecting through storytelling involves the use of creative processes to explore ideas in texts and to craft and share texts in all the modes. The scope of the stories that we share and that others share with us can be very wide. It includes non-fiction and non-narrative texts in oral, written, visual, or multimodal forms. Storytelling can be collaborative or individual, for sharing with others or for self-expression.

    English learning area structure

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    This section describes the English learning area structure and how it changes over the five phases of learning. (See the Content of the learning areas section for the general structure of each learning area in the New Zealand curriculum.)

    Each phase has:

    • a progress outcome describing what students understand, know, and can do by the end of the phase 
    • an introduction to the teaching sequence highlighting how to teach during this particular phase 
    • a year-by-year teaching sequence highlighting what to teach in the phase, along with teaching considerations for particular aspects of content.

    Progress outcomes

    The progress outcomes (one per phase) describe what students will understand, know, and be able to do by the end of the phase.

    • Understand describes the big ideas and themes that students develop over the five phases. These understandings grow in complexity as students develop, their skills grow, and they create and use more complex texts.
    • Know outlines the meaningful and important content, concepts, and topics that exemplify and enrich students’ understanding of the big ideas. These concepts have been organised under the headings Text purposes and audiences; Ideas within, across, and beyond texts; and Features and structures of language.
    • Do describes the practices (e.g., the strategies, skills, and actions) that students learn to use in more sophisticated and refined ways. As students develop proficiency with these practices, they are able to engage with knowledge in greater depth and breadth. The practices have been organised under the headings Comprehending and creating texts; Critical analysis; Reading for pleasure; and Connecting through storytelling.

    It is through the interweaving of Understand, Know, and Do that students develop their conceptual understandings and use of the practices, supporting success and bringing richness and meaning to English for them.

    NZC - English Understand-Know-Do diagram showing the three strands weaving together into the learning that matters. Understand is described as: communication depends on shared codes and conventions; Language and literature give us insight into ourselves and others; The stories of Aotearoa New Zealand are unique taonga tuku iho; Stories are a source of joy and nourishment; and Literature, language, and texts embody perspectives. Know is described as: Text purposes and audiences; Ideas within, across, and beyond texts; Features and structures of language. Do is described as: Comprehending and creating texts; Critical analysis; Reading for pleasure; and Connecting through storytelling.

    As students progress through the two phases, their learning shifts from focusing predominantly on the constrained3 elements of literacy (such as decoding and handwriting), to building a strong literacy foundation, and then to using this foundation in all learning areas. They increasingly focus on unconstrained skills (such as vocabulary and comprehension) and on exploring text and language in the English learning area.

    This change in focus is seen in how the Understand, Know, and Do progress outcomes are reflected in the year-by-year teaching sequences. The descriptors of what to teach each year have the stem ‘Informed by prior learning ...’ in order to reinforce that teachers will use their professional judgment about what content to teach and how to teach it. They will make these judgments in response to the prior knowledge, strengths, and experiences that students bring to their learning.

    Strands

    The teaching sequences of the first two phases weave together the progress outcome content with three strands: oral language, reading, and writing. This reflects the critical focus on structured literacy approaches in the first six years of school.

    Oral language

    The focus of this strand is on teaching students to speak and listen effectively. The term ‘oral language’ refers to any method of communication a child uses as a first language; this includes spoken languages, New Zealand Sign Language, and alternative and augmentative communication (AAC). It also encompasses expressions such as vocalisations, gestures, movements, and images.

    This strand acknowledges that strong oral language is the cornerstone of learning and is crucial for success across all learning areas. Although everyday language develops naturally in a rich environment, mastering complex academic and formal language and communication skills requires explicit teaching and practice. Reading and writing instruction and learning experiences across the curriculum provide opportunities for both incidental and planned teaching of language and communication skills.

    Reading

    The focus of this strand is on teaching students to decode, make meaning from, and think critically about text. It also provides opportunities for them to develop a love of reading and to value the ways in which reading widely can enrich their lives. As text critics, students come to understand how language and texts work, enabling them to challenge texts. By exploring texts from New Zealand, the Pacific, and around the world, students gain insights into themselves and others.

    Writing

    The focus of this strand is on teaching students to write for a variety of purposes, following the codes, conventions, and structures that enable others to understand what they have written. It also aims to foster a love of writing.

    Teaching sequences

    Much of the learning in English is iterative and recursive. Throughout their schooling pathway, as they read and create a broader range of more complex texts, all students continue to build on the knowledge and practices that they have developed in the early phases of the curriculum.

    Some statements in the teaching sequences are repeated across multiple years, allowing more time for progression and consolidation. Not all statements are progressed each year; some topics start and others end as the teaching emphasis changes.

    The statements in the teaching sequences vary in the amount of teaching time they require. The learning area is designed to enable knowledge and practices to be connected and taught together, so individual statements in a year sequence should be combined in ways that enhance learning.

    The year-by-year content can be viewed both vertically and horizontally. The vertical view helps teachers know what to plan for the next year. The horizontal view allows teachers to follow the statements for one concept across several stages. This helps them understand the prior knowledge students may bring to their learning and helps them decide how to extend this learning. The horizontal view also helps teachers plan for mixed-level classes.

    The teaching sequences are accompanied by teaching considerations, which provide more detailed guidance.


    Teaching guidance

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    Key characteristics of how people learn have informed the development of the English learning area. These characteristics are:

    • We learn best when we experience a sense of belonging in the learning environment and feel valued and supported. 
    • A new idea or concept is always interpreted through, and learned in association with, existing knowledge. 
    • Establishing knowledge in a well-organised way in long-term memory reduces students’ cognitive load when building on that knowledge. It also enables them to apply and transfer the knowledge. 
    • Our social and emotional wellbeing directly impacts on our ability to learn new knowledge. 
    • Motivation is critical for wellbeing and engagement in learning.4

    All five characteristics are interconnected in a dynamic way. They are always only pieces of the whole, so it is critical to consider them all together. The dynamic and individual nature of learning explains why we see individual learners develop along different paths and at different rates.

    The implications of these characteristics for teaching English are described in this section, with more detail in the introduction to each phase and the ‘teaching considerations’ in the year-by-year teaching sequences.

    The remainder of this section focuses on three key areas of teacher decision making:

    • developing a comprehensive teaching and learning programme 
    • using assessment to inform teaching 
    • planning.

    Developing a comprehensive teaching and learning programme

    A comprehensive English learning area programme needs the following components:

    • explicit teaching 
    • structured literacy approaches 
    • inclusive teaching and learning 
    • developing positive identities as communicators, readers, and writers 
    • working with texts.

    Explicit teaching

    Explicit teaching is a structured, carefully sequenced approach to teaching. The sequencing of content is thought out and broken down into manageable steps, each of which is clearly and concisely explained and modelled by the teacher. Explicit teaching requires a high level of teacher-student interaction, guided student practice, and, when proficiency is achieved, independent practice.

    Explicit teaching supports cumulative learning as new knowledge is built on what students already know.

    Teachers provide multiple opportunities for practising, reviewing, consolidating, and using previous learning alongside new learning.

    Explicit teaching takes account of cognitive overload. With sufficient practice, new learning is transferred to long-term memory. This frees up working memory, opening up opportunities for extension, enrichment, and new learning.

    Explicit teaching is strongly interactive – it is not simply teacher talk. It includes rich discussions between teachers and students and amongst students, to check on understanding. Teachers adapt the pace of their teaching in response to students’ progress. They engage students in creative and challenging tasks to foster motivation and engagement.

    Explicit teaching involves: 

    • connecting the current focus to previous learning 
    • providing concise, step-by-step explanations, accompanied by student input and discussion 
    • explaining, modelling, and demonstrating
    • regularly checking for understanding and providing feedback 
    • providing opportunities for collaborative and independent practice.

    Structured literacy approaches

    Structured literacy approaches support students to develop strong literacy foundations in a way that maximises their progress and manages the cognitive load inherent in learning. For the purposes of oral language, reading, and writing, these approaches include:

    • speech and language, encompassing any method of communication a student uses, including communication modes such as New Zealand Sign Language (NZSL) and augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) 
    • phonemic awareness 
    • systematic synthetic phonics teaching and knowledge to develop decoding and spelling skills 
    • handwriting 
    • vocabulary 
    • morphology 
    • syntax 
    • fluency 
    • text structure 
    • writing processes 
    • comprehension.

    These elements are reflected in the content of the teaching sequences and teaching considerations. Systematically and explicitly teaching these elements to novice learners strengthens their understanding, helps to manage their cognitive load, and maximises their progress in acquiring literacy.

    Inclusive teaching and learning

    All students learn best when they have a strong sense of belonging and feel valued and supported. Awareness that students vary in their strengths and needs helps teachers create welcoming, responsive, and inclusive environments that nurture students’ learning, identities, languages, and cultures.

    Because students engage with learning, process information, and demonstrate knowledge in diverse ways, teachers design experiences that allow students to participate in a range of ways. Inclusive frameworks like Te Tūāpapa o He Pikorua, integrate flexible supports into day-to-day teaching and learning. They enable teachers to create environments that acknowledge and address the needs and strengths of all students. Explicitly teaching essential knowledge and skills and addressing barriers to learning provides equitable access to language and literacy learning.

    Teachers support students to connect with and use their languages, including te reo Māori and New Zealand Sign Language (NZSL), and their cultural knowledge as resources to progress their learning. The use and development of students’ first and heritage languages enable stronger language and literacy learning and can lead to improved educational and wellbeing outcomes for multilingual learners. Students express their languages in various ways when they engage with the English learning area, including augmentative and alternative communication, Braille, gestures, and other visual supports. Acknowledging this fosters an inclusive and effective learning environment, supporting the diverse needs and strengths of all students.

    Teachers can use the English Language Learning Progressions (ELLP) and ELLP Pathway to plan targeted language support for new learners of English. These help to support both their social communication skills and their academic language proficiency in English. This is particularly important because the academic language demands of the eight learning areas increase with successive phases.

    Developing positive identities as communicators, readers, and writers

    Learning is enhanced when students have success and feel positive about their learning.

    If students feel anxious, they have fewer cognitive resources available for learning. Teachers can help to manage students’ anxiety about their learning by helping them to understand that literacy development is dynamic and non-linear. Literacy learning may include periods of rapid improvement, as well as periods of revisiting and refining skills. It does not always follow an even, sequential progression of learning.

    Students develop positive identities as communicators, readers, and writers by recognising and valuing the use of literacy in their lives. This is enhanced when they explore texts that reflect their identities, cultures, interests, and preferences, and especially when they choose what they read and write. Developing positive identities also involves creativity in exploring ideas in texts and in crafting and sharing texts.

    Students may enjoy word play; participate in rich, extended conversations; share books, stories, and poems; invite their families to share stories; encourage one another to share favourite texts; visit public and school libraries; and suggest topics for writing. They should be encouraged to respect one another’s ideas and to express their opinions as readers and writers.

    Working with texts

    Working with text is at the core of English.

    Texts can be in a range of language modes (e.g., written, oral5, and visual modes) and use a range of technologies (e.g., print and digital). Multimodal texts such as film and digital media combine language with other means of communication, such as images or a soundtrack. Texts are also generated using augmentative and alternative communication (e.g., gestures and picture symbols) and Braille.

    How texts are used as well as how they are chosen are important considerations for teaching in English.

    Different texts make different demands on their creators and users. Typically, as students progress in their learning, they work with a broader range of text forms and engage with increasingly complex texts. This does not mean that, for instance, fluent readers will no longer work with simple texts; rather, they will have a broader range of texts to work with.

    Students need to develop certain skills, knowledge, and attitudes if they are to meet the reading and writing demands of the curriculum. Although reading and writing are described in separate strands in the first three phases of learning, they are often used together in English and across the learning areas. Texts that students read are used as models for writing, and their writing is often a response to what they have read.

    Teachers select texts based on their knowledge of their students and of the learning purposes. These could include:

    • texts that are decodable (phonically controlled), when the primary purpose is practising grapheme-phoneme correspondences they have recently been taught 
    • texts that have rich language, when the primary purposes are building students’ enjoyment of reading, vocabulary, knowledge of text structures, and comprehension skills (e.g., sophisticated picture books, classic and contemporary literature, stories from Aotearoa New Zealand that include kupu Māori, stories from the Pacific, and stories from around the world) 
    • texts that model the modes, conventions, or structures being taught (e.g., prose, poetry, plays, and novels) 
    • texts that are relevant to students’ current learning and allow for a variety of interpretations and responses, multiple perspectives, and global, national, and local contexts (e.g., information texts and narrative texts by local, New Zealand, Pacific, and international writers)
    • texts that provide multiple entry points with the purpose of exploring a concept rather than learning to read or write (e.g., sophisticated picture books and texts that explore similar ideas using different modes) 
    • texts that allow for exploration, reflection, and discussion of how text creators use techniques to persuade or influence, and the impact of these on different people 
    • texts that allow for exploring the use of language over time and in different places (e.g., by comparing contemporary and historical texts or texts from different countries).

    It is important to include texts that reflect the identities and cultures of students, or that provide windows into different places, times, and cultures (e.g., prose, poetry, plays, novels, contemporary and historical texts, stories from New Zealand, the Pacific, and around the world). Making meaning of these texts provides opportunities to strengthen students’ knowledge and understanding of Aotearoa New Zealand perspectives.

    Texts may include those that students have created themselves and texts from their families and communities. Texts are also generated using Braille, and augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) such as gestures and picture symbols.

    Using assessment to inform teaching

    Assessment that informs decisions about adapting teaching practice is moment-by-moment and ongoing. Teachers use observation, conversations, and low-stakes testing to continuously monitor students’ progress in relation to their year level in the teaching sequence. They ensure that they notice and recognise the development, consolidation, and use of learning-area knowledge by students within daily lessons, and that they provide timely feedback. They respond by adapting their practice accordingly. For example, they reduce or increase scaffolding and supports, paying particular attention to anxiety caused by cognitive overload. Formative assessment information can also be collected through self and peer assessment, with students reflecting on goals and identifying next steps.

    In addition to daily monitoring, teachers use purposefully designed, formative assessment tasks at different points throughout a unit or topic to highlight the concepts and reasoning students use and understand. Teachers ensure such tasks are valid by addressing barriers to learning so that every student is able to demonstrate what they know and can do.

    When planning next steps for teaching and learning, teachers consider students’ strengths and responses along with potential opportunities for further consolidation. Next steps could include:

    • designing scaffolds to support students to access and enrich their learning 
    • providing opportunities for students to apply new learning 
    • planning lessons focused on revisiting, reteaching, or consolidating learning.

    Providing timely feedback throughout the learning process and identifying and addressing misconceptions as they arise lead to the efficient and accurate development of learning-area concepts and promote further learning. Teachers can use feedback to prompt students to recall previous learning, make connections, and extend their understanding.

    Planning

    This section provides guidance on what to pay attention to when planning English teaching and learning programmes. In every classroom, there are many ways in which students engage in learning and show what they know and can do. Using assessment information and designing inclusive experiences, teachers plan an ‘entry point’ to a new concept that every student can access. Students’ interests and the school culture and community shape the planning, adding richness, creativity, and meaning to the programme.

    Teaching and learning plans are developed for each year, topic or unit, week, and lesson and make optimal use of instructional time. The following considerations are critical when planning and designing learning:

    • Develop plans using the sequence statements for the year, taking students’ prior learning into account. Plan for all students to experience all the statements in the sequence. 
    • Map out a year’s programme composed of ‘units’ by looking for opportunities to teach statements from the year sequence together. These may be from the same strand or may be across several strands. For example, integrating the teaching of oral language, reading, and writing can be efficient, provided it does not cause cognitive overload for students.
    • Order the units so that new learning will build on students’ prior learning and connect over the course of the year. Consider the length of time allocated to specific strands and concepts across the year – some concepts may require more teaching time than others. Ensure the year’s programme includes opportunities to revisit, consolidate, and extend learning around previously taught concepts and processes. 
    • Within unit or weekly planning, break down the knowledge and skills into a series of manageable learning experiences, so that students have several opportunities to deepen their knowledge. Use assessment information to plan where you will introduce and reinforce learning.
    • Identify the key texts you will use that support students to explore, learn, and use these concepts, and provide opportunities to engage in learning that promotes creativity and curiosity.
    • Within unit or weekly plans, break down new concepts and procedures into a series of manageable learning experiences, and provide enough opportunities to develop understanding and fluency. Plan for a balance of explicit teaching (to introduce and reinforce learning), and rich tasks (to investigate a concept, support consolidation of previously taught concepts or procedures, and apply learning to new situations). Students should also be given daily opportunities to revisit prior learning. This consolidates and extends their knowledge and practices. Teach both reading and writing for at least an hour each a day (two hours in total), with an understanding that reading and writing are complementary, and will often be taught together. 
    • Plan for inclusive teaching and learning. Think about multiple ways for students to participate in learning experiences and to show their progress. Plan for equitable access to allow all students to have fair access to learning opportunities. Identify and reduce barriers to learning, and plan for universal supports that are available to all students. 
    • Use flexible groups within a lesson, based on the learning purpose for the lesson (e.g., working as a whole class for demonstration and discussion, in smaller groups to discuss a text, in pairs to explain thinking). Provide opportunities for both individual and collaborative work, and enable students to determine when they need to work with others and when they need time and space to work independently.
    • Teach students to use digital tools accurately, appropriately, and efficiently to enhance meaning making and creation – for example, creating and editing written, visual, and audio text. Plan for students to evaluate the validity, credibility, and accuracy of digital texts. While the use of digital tools is important, students must first learn to read and write print-based text. Handwriting has been shown to reinforce the correct spelling of words and the retention of information, as it involves more cognitive engagement than typing. Therefore, these foundational skills are a key focus in the first two phases of learning.

    To support students who have not developed the prior knowledge needed to fully engage with the content of the teaching sequence statements for their year, it is important to find ways to accelerate their progress through such approaches as targeted and explicit small-group teaching.

    When students have developed a deep knowledge and consolidated their practices for their year, you can extend their learning by asking them to apply their understanding to unfamiliar situations and more complex texts.

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    Heading

    References

    1. While the terms reading and writing are used, these expectations are inclusive of alternative methods of communication, including New Zealand Sign Language, augmentative and alternative communication (AAC), and Braille.

    2. For simplicity, ‘maths’ is used as an all-encompassing term to refer to the grouping of subject matter, dispositions, skills, competencies, and understandings that encompasses all aspects of numeracy, mathematics, and statistics.

    3. “Constrained knowledge and skills consist of a limited number of items and thus can be mastered through systematic teaching within a relatively short time frame. Unconstrained meaning-making knowledge and skills are learned across a lifetime and are broad in scope.” (Scott P. (2005). Reinterpreting the Development of Reading Skills. Reading Research Quarterly, 40/2,184–202.)

    4. A description of each characteristic is found here.

    5. Oral language encompasses any method of communication a child uses as a first language; this includes New Zealand Sign Language and, for children who are non-verbal, augmentative and alternative communication (AAC).

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    Abstract nouns

    Nouns that represent ideas, qualities, or states rather than concrete objects. For example, ‘love’, ‘freedom’, ‘happiness’.

    Accountable talk

    A way of speaking and interacting that allows all students to participate in meaningful discussions. It supports students to: share their ideas, respond to the ideas of others respectfully, support their opinions with evidence and engage in sophisticated conversations.

    Adverbial clause
    (adverbial phrase)

    A group of words that function as an adverb, modifying a verb, adjective, or another adverb. For example, “She sings because she loves music.”

    Alphabetic principle

    The idea or understanding that letters of the alphabet represent specific sounds in speech.

    Augmentative and alternative communication (AAC)

    Refers to various methods used to help individuals with speech or language difficulties communicate effectively. AAC includes both augmentative communication, which supplements existing speech, and alternative communication, which replaces speech when it is not possible.

    Automaticity

    The automatic processing of information as, for example, when a reader or writer does not need to pause to work out words as they read or write. The outcome is being a fluent reader, writer and communicator.

    Chameleon prefixes

    Prefixes meaning the same things that can sound or be spelled differently, depending on the first letter of the root word. For example, the prefix ad- (meaning to/toward) changes to ac- when used in the word ‘accept’, or at- in the word ‘attract’.

    Choral reading

    The teacher and the students read the same passage at the same time.

    Clause

    A group of words that includes a subject and a verb. For example, in the sentence, “The baby cries when it is hungry”, “The baby cries” and “when it is hungry” are both clauses. The first one could stand alone as a sentence, so it’s an independent clause. The second one couldn’t stand alone, so it’s a dependent clause.

    Code

    An agreed upon system of signs or symbols used to create meaning within a mode. For example, the code of written language and facial expressions or body language in the gestural mode.

    Complex sentences

    Complex sentences contain one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses. Dependent clauses often begin with subordinating conjunctions like ‘because’, ‘since’, ‘if’, ‘when’, or ‘although’. For example: 
    “I stayed home because it was raining.”
    Independent clause: “I stayed home.”
    Dependent clause: “because it was raining.”

    Compound sentences

    Created when two or more independent clauses are joined using a conjunction (such as ‘and’, ‘but’, ‘or’, ‘nor’, ‘for’, ‘so’, or ‘yet’) or a punctuation mark (a semi-colon) to show a connection between two more ideas. Each independent clause in a compound sentence can stand alone as a complete sentence. For example:
    “I wanted to go for a walk, but it started to rain.”
    Independent clause one: “I wanted to go for a walk.”
    Independent clause two: “It started to rain.”
    Coordinating conjunction: “but”

    Compound-complex sentence

    These are the most complicated type of sentences. They consist of:

    • at least two independent clauses (which can each stand alone as a complete sentence)
    • and at least one dependent clause (which cannot stand alone as a complete sentence).

    These sentences enable us to articulate more elaborate and detailed thoughts, making them excellent tools for explaining complex ideas or describing extended sequences of events.

    Comprehension monitoring

    Occurs when the reader (or listener) actively monitors and confirms their understanding. They use their prior knowledge of a topic or concept, along with their knowledge of vocabulary, to monitor their understanding of what they are reading or listening to. There are a range of strategies that are used to support meaning making. Students do this from an early age.

    Connective

    Words or phrases that join sentences, clauses, or words together. Connectives can be conjunctions, prepositions, or adverbs. They help to show the relationship between different parts of a sentence or between sentences, helping to make text and spoken language more coherent. There are many connectives to learn about which enhance comprehension and expression of spoken and written language. For example:
    Coordinating conjunctions: and, but, or
    Subordinating conjunctions: because, since
    Time & order connectives: first, after that, previously, suddenly, subsequently, finally, in previous years
    Addition: also, in addition, furthermore
    Illustration: for example, for instance, such as
    Contrast: but, however, alternatively, on the other hand, in contrast

    Consonant letters

    Words are written using letters which are either vowels or consonants. English consonant letters are B, C, D, F, G, H, J, K, L, M, N, P, Q, R, S, T, V, W, X, Y (sometimes), Z.

    Consonant phonemes

    A phoneme (speech sound) in which the breath is at least partly obstructed. Consonants are produced by blocking or restricting airflow using the vocal cords and parts of the mouth such as the tongue, lips, or teeth. For example, /s/, /p/, /ch/, and /m/.
    Aotearoa New Zealand English has 24 consonant phonemes, and te reo Māori has 10 consonant phonemes. Consonant phonemes may be voiced, or voiceless. Consonants need vowels to make up syllables and words.

    Consonant digraph

    A grapheme written with two or more consonant letters that, together, represent one phoneme. For example, ch- as in ‘chair’ or ph- as in ‘phone’.

    Constrained knowledge and skills

    “Constrained knowledge and skills consist of a limited number of items, such as learning the letters of the alphabet, thus can be mastered through systematic teaching within a relatively short time frame.” - Scott P. (2005). Reinterpreting the Development of Reading Skills. Reading Research Quarterly, 40/2, 184 -2022

    Convention

    A rule followed by a particular type or mode of language (e.g., for volume when speaking) or a particular type of text (e.g., detective fiction).

    Decodable texts

    Specially designed reading materials used in early literacy instruction. These texts are composed of words that align with the phonics skills students have been taught, allowing them to practice decoding words using their knowledge of letter-sound relationships.

    Decoding strategies

    Strategies used by readers to work out (decode) unfamiliar words. For example, looking for known chunks, using knowledge of grapheme–phoneme relationships. These strategies are essential for developing reading fluency and comprehension.

    Digraph

    Two letters representing one phoneme. This sound is different from the individual sounds of the letters when they are pronounced separately. Digraphs can be composed of either consonants or vowels. For example, -er in ‘her’, -ch in ‘chips’.

    Diphthong

    A sound made by combining two vowels, specifically when it starts as one vowel sound and goes to another, like the ‘oy’ sound in oil. Diphthongs are sometimes called ‘gliding vowels’.

    Echo reading

    First, the teacher reads aloud while students follow along silently. Then students read aloud the same part of the text back to the teacher, echoing the fluency, expression and tone the teacher used. Echo reading can be used for phrases, sentences and paragraphs.

    Emergent bilingual/multilingual

    Students who are developing proficiency in English while continuing to develop their home language(s).

    Explanatory text

    A type of non-fiction writing that explains how or why something happens. It provides a detailed description of a process, event, or concept, often answering questions like “How does this work?” or “Why does this happen?”

    Fluency

    Refers to the ability to express oneself easily and articulately. The ability to speak, read, or write rapidly and accurately, focusing on meaning and phrasing and without having to give attention to individual words or common forms and sequences of language. Fluency is essential in communication as it allows for clear and effective expression, whether in speaking, writing, and reading. 

    Fragment

    A fragment is a collection of words that doesn’t form a grammatically complete sentence. Typically, it is missing a subject, a verb, or both, or it is a dependent clause that is not linked to an independent clause.

    Gerunds

    Verb forms ending in -ing that function as nouns. For example, “Swimming is fun.”

    Gist statement

    Summarises the main idea or ‘gist’ of a section of text.

    Global coherence inferences

    Inferences that make the text form a consistent and meaningful whole, so that we can build a mental picture. Common global coherence inferences include ones that suggest the setting of a text or a character’s emotion or goals from key words. 

    Grapheme

    The smallest unit of a written language, each usually represents one phoneme. In English, graphemes have one, two, three or four letters. For example, ‘f’, ‘th’, ‘o’, ‘ee’.
    ‘X’ is an exception, as it represents two phonemes /k//s/.

    High-frequency words

    Words that appear frequently in written and spoken language and include at least one grapheme-phoneme correspondence that students haven’t been explicitly taught yet or that is so unusual that it is considered irregular.

    Indirect objects

    The recipient of the direct object. For example, “He gave her a gift.” 

    Inference

    Inference when reading a text is the process of drawing conclusions or making educated guesses based on the information provided in the text, combined with the reader’s own knowledge and experiences. This process, often described as “reading between the lines” helps readers understand implied meanings, predict outcomes, and grasp deeper insights that are not explicitly stated.

    Interpretation

    The process of assigning meaning or significance to elements within a text based on a student’s understanding, analysis, and personal insights. It involves making connections between various aspects such as characters, events, dialogue, and symbolism to uncover deeper meanings and themes.

    Language features

    Specific techniques used in writing and speech to create or support meaning. These features help convey ideas, evoke emotions, and enhance the overall effectiveness of communication. For example, figurative language and imagery.

    Literacy

    Literacy knowledge and skills underpin and contribute to developing the complex language needed for advanced interpretation and expression of meaning across an increasingly diverse range of oral, visual, written and digital texts.
    There are literacy skills and knowledge necessary for each curriculum learning area. This includes the technical and specialist language of those areas, as well as the different approaches and ways of using language across learning areas.
    Literacy skills include the ability to critically interpret, manage and create meaning through a range of digital communication channels.

    Literary texts

    Written works that are valued for their artistic and aesthetic qualities. These texts often explore complex themes, emotions, and human experiences through creative language and storytelling. Literary texts can include various genres, such as: 
    Novels: Extended fictional works that explore characters, plots, and settings in depth.
    Short Stories: Brief fictional narratives that focus on a single event or character.
    Poetry: Verses and poems that use rhythm, rhyme, and imagery to evoke emotions and ideas.
    Plays: Dramatic works intended for performance on stage, exploring dialogue and action.
    Essays: Prose works that reflect the author’s personal views on a particular subject.

    Local or lexical inference

    The reader understands the meaning of words and phrases by connecting them to other words and phrases in the text. This is called a lexical inference because it relies on links between lexical items (i.e. words) and is a type of local cohesion inference. 

    Meaning making

    Using personal and cultural knowledge, experiences, strategies, and awareness to derive or convey meaning when listening, speaking, reading, writing or viewing; this requires language comprehension, background knowledge, an understanding of the forms and purposes of different text types and an awareness that texts are intended for an audience.

    Metacognition

    Involves being aware of and understanding their own thought processes, which helps them plan, monitor, and evaluate their learning strategies. Linked to the science of learning, this self-awareness enhances their ability to retain information and solve problems. 

    Mode

    A system of signs and symbols with agreed upon meanings. Refers to the various forms and methods through which literacy is expressed and communicated. They are essential for developing comprehensive literacy skills, enabling individuals to effectively communicate and understand information in various contexts. Modes of meaning include:
    Oral Language: live or recorded speech
    Written Language: writing, reading
    Visual Mode: still or moving image, sculpture
    Audio Mode: music, ambient sounds, noises
    Gestural Mode: movements of the hands and arms, facial expressions, eye movements and gaze, dance
    Spatial Mode: proximity, spacing, layout, interpersonal distance

    Morphological knowledge

    An understanding of morphemes, the smallest units of meaning in a language, which can be prefixes, suffixes, or root words. This knowledge is crucial for reading, spelling, and vocabulary development.

    Multimodal text

    Multimodal texts combine two or more modes of communication to convey a message. These modes can include oral language, written language, audio, gestural, spatial and visual modes. Examples of multimodal texts include picture books, websites, performance poetry, films, news reports, infographics, videos, and digital presentations. 

    Narrative text

    A type of writing that tells a story or describes a sequence of events. The primary purpose of narrative texts is to entertain or inform the reader by presenting a coherent and engaging story. Organised around events and literary elements such as setting, characters, and a problem and solution. For example, diary, biography, autobiography, personal narrative, fable, myth, legend, fairytale, poem, play.

    Orthographic mapping

    The cognitive process through which a word is permanently stored in memory for instant and effortless recall. Orthographic mapping is crucial for developing fluent reading skills. It enables readers to recognise words automatically without needing to sound them out each time, which frees up cognitive resources for comprehension and higher-order thinking. Key aspects of orthographic mapping include: 
    Letter-sound connections: Readers map the sounds they hear in a word to the letters they see.
    Pronunciation and spelling: The pronunciation of a word is linked to its spelling, allowing for quick recognition.
    Meaning: The meaning of the word is also stored, making it easier to understand and use in context.

    Participles

    Verb forms used as adjectives. Present participles end in -ing, and past participles often end in -ed or -en. For example:
    Present participle: “the running water”
    Past participle: “the broken vase”

    Partner reading

    One student reads to another, and then they swap roles. Students are taught a simple routine to coach each other through reading errors.

    Phoneme

    The smallest unit of sound in a language that can distinguish one word from another. When combined with other sounds, they form a meaningful unit. For example, the sounds represented by the letters, ‘p’ ‘b’ ‘d’ and ‘t’ are phonemes because they differentiate words like ‘pad,’ ‘bad’ and ‘bat’.

    Phoneme-grapheme correspondence

    The relationships between spoken sound units and the written symbols that represent them. Refers to the relationship between phonemes (the smallest units of sound in a language) and graphemes (the letters or groups of letters that represent those phonemes in written form). This concept (the alphabetic principle) is fundamental in phonics, developing students’ ability to identify and manipulate phonemes and link them to their corresponding graphemes to read and spell words. 

    Phonemic awareness

    The ability to hear, differentiate, and attend to the individual sounds within words. A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound in a spoken word. For example, ‘frog’ has four sounds as does the word ‘box’.

    Phonics

    An approach to teaching reading that focuses on the sounds represented by letters in words (see also decoding skills).

    Phonological awareness

    An overall understanding of the sound systems of a language. For example, an awareness that words are made up of combinations of sounds.

    Phrase

    A small group of words within a sentence. It does not make sense on its own. This is because it does not contain a complete verb or a subject.

    Predicate

    The predicate is the part of a sentence (or clause) that states what the subject does or is. For example, in the sentence “Native short-tailed pekapeka hunt insects on the forest floor,” the predicate is “hunt insects on the forest floor”.

    Predicate adjectives

    An adjective that follows a linking verb and describes the subject. For example, “The sky looks blue.”

    Predicate nouns

    A noun that follows a linking verb and renames the subject. For example, “She is a teacher.”

    R-controlled vowel pattern

    Graphemes which represent the phonemes /ar/, /er/, /or/, /eer/, /air/, and /ure/.
    Note: in the general Aotearoa New Zealand English accent, /eer/ and /air/ are now pronounced as the same phoneme by many speakers over recent decades. For example, ‘hear’ and ‘hair’ are pronounced the same.

    Repeated reading

    Students re-read texts multiple times, focusing on improving accuracy and expression.

    Schwa

    The schwa is the vowel sound in an unstressed syllable. It can be represented by many different letters and often sounds like the short ‘u’ sound ‘uh’ or the short ‘i' sound ‘ih’, like the sound for ‘er’ in letter, or the sound for ‘o’ in police. 

    Scope and sequence

    ‘Scope’ refers to the concepts or skills that need to be taught. ‘Sequence’ refers to the order in which the concepts and skills are introduced. This ensures that foundational knowledge is built before introducing more complex concepts. This structured approach helps students make connections, facilitating deeper understanding and retention of information.

    Simple sentence

    A simple sentence must:

    • contain a subject (noun or noun phrase) and a predicate (verb and any elements telling what the subject does or is)
    • make complete sense or represent a complete thought on its own.

    Simple sentences are the building blocks of more complex sentence structures and are essential for clear and concise communication. Sentences not containing a subject or predicate are ‘incomplete sentences’ or ‘fragments’.

    Self-regulation

    The ability to understand and manage behaviour, emotions, and reactions to various situations. This skill helps children focus on tasks, control impulses, and interact positively with others, all of which are essential for learning and social development.

    Sentence combining

    Sentence combining is an evidence-based instructional technique which is effective for teaching syntax and grammar to children, and improves sentence quality, complexity and variety.

    Split digraph

    A vowel digraph which has been split up by a consonant letter between the two vowel letters. For example: 
    a-e as in ‘cake’
    i-e as in ‘five’
    o-e as in ‘code’
    e-e as in ‘sphere’
    u-e as in ‘rule’

    Statistical learning

    In the context of reading, statistical learning is the ability to recognise patterns and regularities in written language. It is a form of implicit learning and includes becoming aware of the probability that a particular grapheme will correspond to a particular phoneme.

    Subject

    The person or thing (noun, pronoun, or noun phrase) that a sentence or clause is about. For example, “braided rivers” is the subject in the sentence “braided rivers form many channels”.

    Summarising texts

    Involves condensing the main ideas and key points of a longer text into a shorter version, using your own words. This process helps to provide a clear and concise overview of the original content without including unnecessary details.

    Syllable

    A single, unbroken vowel sound within a spoken word. They typically contain a vowel sound and perhaps one or more accompanying consonants. All words contain at least one syllable. Syllables are sometimes referred to as the 'beats' of a word that form its rhythm, and breaking a word into syllables can help learners with phonetic spelling.

    Syntax

    The rules followed to arrange words and phrases to create logical and grammatically correct clauses, and sentences. It involves the rules that govern the structure of sentences, including word order, sentence structure, and the relationship between words.

    Systematic synthetic phonics

    A method of teaching reading that emphasises the relationship between letters (graphemes) and sounds (phonemes) in a structured and sequential manner. The term ‘synthetic’ comes from the synthesising or blending of sounds to make a word and enable children to read.

    Taonga tuku iho

    Something handed down, a cultural property or heritage.

    Text

    Texts are constructed from one or more of the modes of meaning (oral language, written language, audio, gestural, spatial and visual modes). They are a language event that we require language skills to understand. Creators construct texts to convey meaning to an audience. For example, a speech, poem, poster, video clip, advertisement.

    Text type

    A particular kind of text with features and conventions linked to its purpose. For example, oral texts are spoken forms of communication, like speeches and conversations, while written texts are conveyed through writing, such as books and articles. Digital texts, created and accessed using technology, often include interactive elements like audio and video.

    Text creator

    An individual or group who creates texts in any mode and using any technology.

    Think-alouds

    A teaching strategy where teachers verbalise their thought processes.

    Transcription

    Describes the act of converting spoken language into written form on the page or screen.

    Trigraph

    A cluster of three letters that collectively produce a specific single sound. It can be composed entirely of consonants or vowels, or it can be a mix of both. For example, sigh, catch

    Unconstrained knowledge and skills

    “Unconstrained meaning-making knowledge and skills are learned across a lifetime and are broad in scope.” - Scott P. (2005). Reinterpreting the Development of Reading Skills. Reading Research Quarterly, 40/2, 184-202

    Unstressed syllable

    The part of the word that doesn't receive emphasis or stress.

    Vowel

    Words are built from letters which are either vowels or consonants. Vowels are A, E, I, O, U and sometimes Y. All syllables include vowels.

    Vowel team

    A spelling pattern where two or more letters are used to represent a single vowel sound. This includes vowel digraphs but also combinations of two or more letters (e.g., -igh for /ī/).
    For example, the -ea- in ‘teach’ or the -ai- in ‘rain’

    Worked examples

    A teaching strategy that provides students with step-by-step demonstrations or examples of how to solve a problem or complete a task.