NZC - English Phase 4 (Years 9–10)

Abstract noun

A noun that represents an idea, quality, or state, rather than a concrete object (e.g. love, freedom, happiness).

Adverbial clause

An adverbial clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a verb, and functions as an adverb. It modifies a verb, adjective, or another adverb by answering questions such as how, when, where, why, or under what conditions. For example, ‘because she was tired’ in ‘She went to bed early because she was tired’.

Adverbial phrase

An adverbial phrase is a group of words that functions as an adverb in a sentence. It does not contain a subject and verb (unlike a clause). It modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb by providing more information about how, when, where, why, or to what extent something happens. For example, ‘in a hurry’ in ‘She left in a hurry’.

Audience

The group of people who engage with a text (e.g. for written texts, the audience is readers who interact with and interpret the content presented by the author).

Augmentative and alternative communication (AAC)

Supports communication and language development for students who, due to speech difficulties, cannot rely on speech alone to be heard and understood. AAC includes both augmentative communication, which supplements existing speech, and alternative communication, which replaces speech when it is not possible.

Automaticity

The automatic processing of information (e.g. when a reader or writer does not need to pause to work out words as they read or write). The outcome is being a fluent reader, writer, and communicator.

Chameleon prefix

Can be pronounced or spelt differently depending on the first letter of the root word, while retaining the same meaning (e.g. the prefix ‘ad–’, meaning to/towards, changes to ‘ac–’ when used in the word ‘accept’ and ‘at–’ in the word ‘attract’).

Clause

A group of words that includes a subject and a verb (e.g. in the sentence ‘The baby cries when it is hungry’, ‘The baby cries’ and ‘when it is hungry’ are both clauses. The first one could stand alone as a sentence, so it is an independent clause. The second one could not stand alone, so it is a dependent clause).

Code

An agreed-upon system of signs or symbols used to create meaning within a mode (e.g. the code of letters, words, and punctuation in the written mode, the code of facial expressions and body language in the gestural mode).

Complex sentence

Contains one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses. Dependent clauses often begin with subordinating conjunctions like ‘because’, ‘since’, ‘if’, ‘when’, or ‘although’. For example, in ‘If it is raining, I will stay home’:

• independent clause: ‘I will stay home’
• dependent clause: ‘If it is raining’.

Compound sentence

Created when two or more independent clauses are joined using a conjunction (such as ‘and’, ‘but’, ‘or’, ‘nor’, ‘for’, ‘so’, or ‘yet’) or a semi-colon, colon, or dash (but not a comma) to show a connection between two more ideas. Each independent clause in a compound sentence can stand alone as a complete sentence. For example, in ‘I wanted to go for a walk, but it started to rain’:

• independent clause one: ‘I wanted to go for a walk’
• independent clause two: ‘it started to rain’
• coordinating conjunction: ‘but’.

Compound-complex sentence

The most complicated type of sentence. It consists of:

• at least two independent clauses (which can each stand alone as a complete sentence)
• at least one dependent clause (which cannot stand alone as a complete sentence).

These sentences enable us to articulate more elaborate and detailed thoughts, making them excellent tools for explaining complex ideas or describing extended sequences of events.

For example, in ‘Although she had left home on time, she was still late for school, and the teacher marked her absent’:

• independent clause one: ‘she was still late for school’
• independent clause two: ‘the teacher marked her absent’
• coordinating conjunction: ‘and’
• dependent clause: ‘Although she had left home on time’.

Connective

Word or phrase that joins sentences, clauses, or words together. Connectives can be conjunctions, prepositions, or adverbs. They show the relationship between different parts of a sentence or between different sentences, helping to make text and spoken language more coherent. There are many different categories of connective. For example:

• coordinating conjunctions: and, but, or
• subordinating conjunctions: because, since
• time and order connectives: first, after that, previously, suddenly, subsequently, finally, in previous years
• addition: also, in addition, furthermore
• illustration: for example, for instance, such as
• contrast: but, however, alternatively, on the other hand, in contrast.

Consonant digraph

A grapheme written with two or more consonant letters that, together, represent one phoneme (e.g. ‘ch’ in ‘chair’, ‘ph’ in ‘phone’).

Consonant phoneme

A speech sound in which the breath is at least partly obstructed (e.g. /s/, /p/, /ch/, /m/). Consonants are produced by blocking or restricting airflow, using the vocal cords and the tongue, lips, and teeth.

Aotearoa New Zealand English has 24 consonant phonemes, and te reo Māori has 10 consonant phonemes. Consonant phonemes may be voiced or voiceless.

Convention

An established guideline for a particular type or mode of language (e.g. using a volume or tone appropriate to the context) or a particular type of text (e.g. play scripts contain stage directions).

Decodable text

Specially designed reading material used in early literacy instruction. These texts are composed of words that align with the phonics skills students have been taught, allowing them to practise decoding words in connected text, using their knowledge of letter–sound relationships.

Digraph

Two letters representing one phoneme. This sound is different from the individual sounds of the letters when they are pronounced separately. Digraphs can be composed of either consonants or vowels (e.g. ‘ch’ in ‘chips’ and ‘ai’ in ‘rain’).

Diphthong

A sound made by combining two vowels, when it starts as one vowel sound and goes to another (e.g. ‘oy’ in ‘oil’). Diphthongs are sometimes called ‘gliding vowels’.

Emergent bilingual/multilingual

Students who are developing proficiency in English while continuing to develop their home language(s).

Fluency

The ability to express oneself easily and articulately. The ability to speak, read, or write rapidly and accurately, focusing on meaning and phrasing and without having to give attention to individual words or common forms and sequences of language. Fluency is essential in communication as it allows for clear and effective expression. 

Fragment

A collection of words that doesn’t form a grammatically complete sentence. Typically, it is missing a subject, a verb, or both, or it is a dependent clause that is not linked to an independent clause.

Gerund

Verb form ending in ‘–ing’ that functions as a noun (e.g. ‘Swimming is fun’).

Genre

Category of texts which have particular structures, styles, features, and content (e.g. science fiction, fantasy, autobiography).

Grapheme

The smallest unit of a written language. In English, graphemes have one, two, three, or four letters and usually represent one phoneme (e.g. ‘f’, ‘th’, ‘o’, ‘ee’). ‘X’ is an exception, as it represents two phonemes, /k/ /s/.

Grapheme–phoneme correspondence

The relationship between spoken sound units and the written symbols that represent them. This concept (the alphabetic principle) is fundamental in phonics, developing students’ ability to identify and manipulate phonemes and link them to their corresponding graphemes to read and spell words. 

High-frequency word

A word that appears frequently in written and spoken language and includes at least one grapheme–phoneme correspondence that students haven’t been explicitly taught yet or that is so unusual that it is considered irregular.

Identity

A set of characteristics that define, and make recognisable and distinct, an individual person or group of people. An identity, and its characteristics, can be personal, local, or national, and can be shaped by politics, gender, race, sexuality, culture, and the events and narratives that surround these factors.

Indirect object

The recipient of the direct object (e.g. ‘He gave her a gift’).

• subject: ‘He’
• verb: ‘gave’
• direct object: ‘a gift’ (what was given)
• indirect object: ‘her’ (the recipient of the gift).

Inference

The process of drawing conclusions or making educated guesses about a whole text (global inferences) or part of a text (local inferences) based on the information provided in a text, combined with the reader’s own knowledge and experiences. This process, often described as ‘reading between the lines’, helps readers understand implied meanings, predict outcomes, and grasp deeper insights that are not explicitly stated.

Insight

This can be demonstrated by students in a number of ways, such as showing empathy and sophistication, looking beyond the text, exploring multiple possible interpretations, and showing awareness of the author’s intentions.

Language feature

A specific language technique that creates or supports meaning, including figurative language (e.g. metaphor, simile, personification) and sound devices (e.g. onomatopoeia, alliteration, assonance).

Literacy

The ability to communicate meaning through a text and to understand meaning in texts others have created.

Literacy knowledge and skills underpin and contribute to developing the complex language needed for advanced interpretation and expression of meaning across an increasingly diverse range of oral, visual, written, and digital texts.

There are literacy skills and knowledge necessary for each curriculum learning area. This includes the technical and specialist language of those areas, as well as the different approaches and ways of using language across learning areas.

Literacy skills include the ability to critically interpret, manage and create meaning through a range of digital communication channels.

Literary feature

Techniques or elements used by authors to convey meaning, evoke emotions, or enhance their storytelling. These features can include the use of language, structure, and style to enrich the text and engage the audience.

Literary tradition

The collective body of works, styles, and conventions that are characteristic of a particular culture, language, or historical period. This encompasses the ways in which literature is created, shared, and interpreted within a specific context. For example, Aotearoa New Zealand has a distinctive national literary tradition.

Meaning making

Using personal and cultural knowledge, experiences, strategies, and awareness to derive or convey meaning when listening, speaking, reading, writing or viewing; this requires language comprehension, background knowledge, an understanding of the forms and purposes of different text types and an awareness that texts are intended for an audience.

Metacognition

Involves being aware of and understanding their own thought processes, which helps them plan, monitor, and evaluate their learning strategies. Linked to the science of learning, this self-awareness enhances their ability to retain information and solve problems. 

Mode

A system of signs and symbols with agreed-upon meanings. Refers to the various forms and methods through which literacy is expressed and communicated. They are essential for developing comprehensive literacy skills, enabling individuals to effectively communicate and understand information in various contexts. Modes of meaning include:

• oral language: live or recorded speech
• written language: writing, reading
• visual mode: still or moving image, sculpture
• audio mode: music, ambient sounds, noises
• gestural mode: movements of the hands and arms, facial expressions, eye movements and gaze, dance
• spatial mode: proximity, spacing, layout, interpersonal distance.

Morpheme

The smallest units of meaning in a language, which can be prefixes, suffixes, or root words. Knowledge of morphemes is crucial for reading, spelling, and vocabulary development.

Multimodal text

Multimodal texts combine two or more modes of communication to convey a message. These modes can include oral language, written language, audio, gestural, spatial, and visual modes. Examples of multimodal texts include picture books, websites, performance poetry, films, news reports, infographics, videos, and digital presentations. 

Narrative text

A type of writing that tells a story or describes a sequence of events (e.g. diary, biography, autobiography, personal narrative, fable, myth, legend, fairytale, poem, play). The primary purpose of narrative texts is to entertain or inform the reader by presenting a coherent and engaging story, organised around events and literary elements such as setting, characters, and a problem and solution.

Orthographic mapping

The cognitive process through which a word is permanently stored in memory for instant and effortless recall. Orthographic mapping is crucial for developing fluent reading skills. It enables readers to recognise words automatically without needing to sound them out each time, which frees up cognitive resources for comprehension and higher-order thinking. Key aspects of orthographic mapping include: 

• letter–sound connections: Readers map the sounds they hear in a word to the letters they see.
• pronunciation and spelling: The pronunciation of a word is linked to its spelling, allowing for quick recognition.
• meaning: The meaning of the word is also stored, making it easier to understand and use in context.

Participle

Verb form used as an adjective or to talk about actions in particular tenses.

• Present participles end in ‘–ing’ and can be used as adjectives (e.g. ‘running water’) or to describe continuous actions (e.g. ‘I am running’). Note that this form is called the gerund when used as a noun (e.g. ‘Does he like running?’).
• Past participles often end in ‘–ed’ or ‘–en’ and can be used as adjectives (e.g. ‘broken vase’) or with ‘have’ to describe actions in the present perfect tense (e.g. ‘She has broken the vase’).

Phoneme

The smallest unit of sound in a language that can distinguish one word from another. When combined with other sounds, they form a meaningful unit. For example, the sounds represented by the letters ‘p’, ‘b’, ‘d’, and ‘t’ are phonemes because they differentiate words like ‘pad,’ ‘bad’, and ‘bat’.

Phonemic awareness

The ability to hear, differentiate, and attend to the individual sounds within words. A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound in a spoken word. For example, ‘frog’ and ‘box’ both have four sounds.

Phonics

An approach to teaching reading that focuses on the sounds represented by letters in words, rather than the names of the letters themselves.

Phrase

A small group of words within a sentence that does not make sense on its own, because it does not contain a complete verb or a subject.

Position (verb)

To place or present an idea, character, or argument in a particular way to influence how it is perceived by the audience.

Predicate

The part of a sentence (or clause) that states what the subject does or is. For example, in the sentence ‘Native short-tailed pekapeka hunt insects on the forest floor’, the predicate is ‘hunt insects on the forest floor’.

Predicate adjective

An adjective that follows a linking verb and describes the subject (e.g. ‘blue’ in ‘The sky looks blue’).

Predicate noun

A noun that follows a linking verb and describes the subject (e.g. ‘teacher’ in ‘She is a teacher’).

R-controlled vowel pattern

Graphemes which represent the phonemes /ar/, /er/, /or/, /eer/, /air/, and /ure/.

Note: In the general Aotearoa New Zealand English accent, /eer/ and /air/ have started being pronounced as the same phoneme by many speakers over recent decades (e.g. ‘hear’ and ‘hair’ are pronounced the same).

Schwa

The vowel sound in an unstressed syllable. It can be represented by many different letters and often sounds like the short ‘u’ sound ‘uh’, the short ‘i’ sound ‘ih’, the ‘er’ in letter, or the ‘o’ in police. 

Scope and sequence

‘Scope’ refers to the concepts or skills that need to be taught. ‘Sequence’ refers to the order in which the concepts and skills are introduced. This ensures that foundational knowledge is built before introducing more complex concepts. This structured approach helps students make connections, facilitating deeper understanding and retention of information.

Seminal text

Seminal texts are influential works that introduce new ideas, frameworks, critiques, or stylistic approaches that significantly shape how others engage with a particular topic. Their importance lies in the way they initiate new directions, challenge existing norms, and become enduring reference points for future work. Their influence may be constructive or controversial — what matters is the depth and reach of their impact, as such texts are continually revisited, debated, and built upon.

Simple sentence

A simple sentence must:

• contain a subject (noun or noun phrase) and a verb (a doing or action word)
• make complete sense or represent a complete thought on its own.

Simple sentences are the building blocks of more complex sentence structures and are essential for clear and concise communication. Sentences not containing a subject or verb are ‘incomplete sentences’ or ‘fragments’.

Split digraph

A vowel digraph which has been split up by a consonant letter between the two vowel letters. For example: 

• ‘a–e’ as in ‘cake’
• ‘i–e’ as in ‘five’
• ‘o–e’ as in ‘code’
• ‘e–e’ as in ‘sphere’
• ‘u–e’ as in ‘rule’.

Statistical learning

In the context of reading, statistical learning is the ability to recognise patterns and regularities in written language. It is a form of implicit learning and includes becoming aware of the probability that a particular grapheme will correspond to a particular phoneme.

Structural feature

The way that a text is shaped or organised (e.g. paragraphing, film transitions, flashbacks, a clear opening, middle, and end).

Stylistic feature

The way in which language choices are arranged to create clarity and variety in a text (e.g. vocabulary selection, syntax).

Subject

The person or thing (noun, pronoun, or noun phrase) that a sentence or clause is about. For example, ‘rain’ in ‘The rain beat down on the roof’.

Sometimes sentences are phrased in the passive voice, changing the subject, as a way to emphasise a different part of the action (e.g. in ‘The roof was beaten by the rain’, ‘roof’ becomes the subject, performing the verb phrase ‘be beaten by’).

Summarising

Condensing the main ideas and key points of a longer text into a shorter version, using your own words.

Syllable

A single, unbroken vowel sound within a spoken word. They typically contain a vowel sound and perhaps one or more accompanying consonants. All words contain at least one syllable. Syllables are sometimes referred to as the ‘beats’ of a word that form its rhythm, and breaking a word into syllables can help learners with phonetic spelling.

Syntax

The rules followed to arrange words and phrases to create logical and grammatically correct clauses and sentences. It involves the rules that govern the structure of sentences, including word order, sentence structure, and the relationship between words.

Systematic synthetic phonics

A method of teaching reading that emphasises the relationship between letters (graphemes) and sounds (phonemes) in a structured and sequential manner. The term ‘synthetic’ comes from the synthesising or blending of sounds to make a word and enable children to read.

Text

An identified stretch of language, used as a means for communication or the focus of learning and investigation. Texts are constructed from one or more of the modes of meaning (oral language, written language, audio, gestural, spatial, and visual modes). They are a language event that we require language skills to understand. Creators construct texts to convey meaning to an audience. For example, a speech, poem, poster, video clip, advertisement, novel, film.

Text form

The essential structure of a text type with characteristic features (e.g. short story, poem, magazine article, speech, film, novel, letter to the editor).

Text type

The purpose associated with, and conventions of, that particular text (e.g. narrative, informational, persuasive).

Transcription

The set of skills and processes involved in converting spoken language into written form on the page or screen, including handwriting, spelling and keyboarding.

Trigraph

A cluster of three letters that collectively produce a specific single sound. It can be composed entirely of consonants or vowels, or it can be a mix of both (e.g. –igh, –tch).

Unstressed syllable

The part of the word that doesn’t receive emphasis or stress.