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NZC - English Phase 3 (Years 7–8)

Knowledge overview and teaching sequence for Phase 3 (Years 7-8) of the English Learning Area. From 1 January 2026 this content is part of the statement of official policy relating to teaching, learning, and assessment of English in all English medium state and state-integrated schools in New Zealand.

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Knowledge overview and teaching sequence for Phase 3 (Years 7-8) of the English Learning Area. From 1 January 2026 this content is part of the statement of official policy relating to teaching, learning, and assessment of English in all English medium state and state-integrated schools in New Zealand.

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Teaching sequence guidance

This section provides guidance about structured literacy approaches, English language learners, and working with texts to support effective teaching of the year-by-year teaching sequences.

Structured literacy approaches

Structured literacy approaches are evidence-based approaches to literacy instruction that are explicit, systematic, and cumulative. For the purposes of communication, reading, and writing, these approaches incorporate the following components:

  • oral language, encompassing spoken and signed languages, including New Zealand Sign Language (NZSL), and, for students who are non-verbal, any first language communication methods a student uses, such as augmentative and alternative communication (AAC), and expressions such as vocalisations, gestures, movements, and images
  • phonemic awareness
  • systematic synthetic phonics to develop spelling skills
  • handwriting
  • vocabulary
  • morphology
  • syntax
  • fluency
  • text structure
  • writing processes
  • comprehension.

These components are reflected in the content of the English teaching sequence statements. Systematically and explicitly teaching these components to novice learners strengthens their understanding, helps to manage their cognitive load, and maximises their progress in acquiring literacy. However, structured literacy approaches do not focus only on what is taught; how literacy is taught is equally important. Teachers can use teaching resources to support structured literacy approaches to guide their implementation of these components. Teacher guidance for accelerating progress in literacy is also available to support teachers to meet the needs of students who need targeted support.

During Years 7–8, teaching focuses more strongly on those structured literacy approach components that are flexible and continue to develop throughout a person’s life, such as vocabulary and comprehension.

In Years 7–8, most students will have already mastered some structured literacy approach components that are normally acquired relatively quickly, such as phonemic awareness and phonics for decoding. They will be consolidating other components and using them with increasing independence and confidence, such as reading fluency, handwriting, and spelling.

English Language Learners (ELLs)

Students learning English as an additional language are likely to need targeted support to learn English for everyday communication and to access the academic language of the curriculum. They may also begin learning English for the first time at any year level.

Some students will still be working through a decoding scope and sequence, and this may include English language learners who begin attending an English-medium school during Years 7–8. Teachers use diagnostic assessments to pinpoint needs and strengths, and provide these students with intensive, accelerative, targeted support using age-appropriate materials.

Teachers use the English Language Learning Progressions (ELLP) and English Language Learning Progressions (ELLP) Pathway to plan targeted language support for new learners of English and those that are developing proficiency in the English language. While some everyday language may develop without explicit instruction through interactions with peers, it is increasingly important to ensure that academic and subject-specific language is explicitly taught during these years. Teachers also support bilingual and multilingual students to connect with and use their first and heritage languages as valuable resources to progress learning and strengthen language and literacy outcomes.

Working with texts

Working with texts is at the core of English. How texts are used and how they are chosen are important considerations.

Teachers choose texts that are suitable for their students’ learning levels and interests and that will support the learning described in Years 7–8. This ensures that selected texts are both engaging and suitably challenging.

Teachers can support effective engagement with texts through the following practices:

  • Provide opportunities for students to select texts based on their preferences and interests and to explore new authors and texts outside their comfort zone.
  • Establish a classroom reading community that discusses different kinds of texts, where students can listen to others’ viewpoints and make informed text recommendations for others.
  • Design purposeful, rich, extended opportunities for students to share their thoughts about texts and topics.
  • Read aloud just for pleasure, helping to build a love of reading and story, while building vocabulary, comprehension, and a classroom reading community.
  • Encourage reading at home to extend students' engagement with texts and support the development of independent reading habits.

To ‘engage meaningfully’ with texts means more than just reading or listening; it includes students’ identifying key ideas, discussing, and applying what they learn from texts. The teaching sequence supports students to learn how to:

  • comprehend and interpret key ideas and details within increasingly complex texts
  • create various types of texts for different audiences and purposes, using effective language and accurate grammar
  • use a range of strategies to understand texts, including comparing and synthesising ideas
  • synthesise insights from texts to produce original responses — such as written, visual, or oral presentations — that demonstrate understanding and creativity.

Studying different types of text forms together, such as stories, poems, and articles, helps students compare and contrast them, enhancing their comprehension and critical thinking skills. Some texts can be studied in more detail than others. Engaging with a variety of texts multiple times allows students to gain a deeper understanding of how texts communicate ideas and represent the world.

Deep comprehension of texts is grounded in the activation of prior knowledge and accumulation of new knowledge — what students already know shapes how they understand new information, making knowledge itself a powerful tool for meaning-making. Readers can relate ideas in texts to their personal experiences and prior knowledge by identifying relevant connections and reflecting on how these connections influence their understanding and interpretation.

Students who are still consolidating their decoding skills need to access year-level texts1 to develop skills and knowledge (including vocabulary, comprehension, and content knowledge) alongside their peers. Teachers support students to do this by adapting supports and scaffolds for students, rather than by simplifying or modifying texts. An effective way to accelerate students’ learning is to work with a small group to explore the content of year-level texts together, explicitly teaching features of the texts that carry meaning. This will enable the students to make sense of texts that are above their traditional ‘instructional level’. When this is not possible, remove barriers and provide alternative ways to access year-level texts — for example, by using audio versions or print-to-speech software.

A key point is that the difficulty of a text for a particular student is determined by the relationship between the text, the complexity of the task, and the student’s existing knowledge and expertise.

The following table outlines expectations around text form, range, and complexity for Years 7–8. Appropriate consideration of text complexity will ensure students can access all relevant knowledge and practices within the teaching sequence. This includes selecting texts that are both accessible and sufficiently challenging, while also meeting the criteria for form, range, and complexity. Guidance for this can be found in the Example Texts supporting document.

Text specifications

Text forms and range2

Text complexity

In each year, students must engage meaningfully with:

  • at least one novel
  • a selection of poetry3
  • a selection of non-fiction texts.4

Teachers may also choose from a range of other text forms, such as, film, drama, short stories, and visual, spoken, multimodal, and digital texts.5 

Teachers should ensure that students experience historical and contemporary texts that are widely regarded as high quality.6 These texts must include:

  • seminal texts that have had a significant and lasting impact on how people understand key ideas from different cultures and times
  • texts by a range of authors representative of New Zealand’s rich bicultural (both Māori and Pākehā) and multicultural literary heritage
  • texts from around the world
  • texts from popular and youth cultures.

Students should also be supported to select texts for personal interest and enjoyment.

Texts should be of varying lengths, have an appropriate level of complexity, and include:

  • words and phrases with multiple meanings that require students to know and use effective word-solving strategies 
  • sentences that vary in length, including long, complex sentences that contain a lot of information
  • visual features that contain main ideas, such as illustrations, photographs, text boxes, diagrams, maps, charts, or graphs
  • language features that support analysis of how meaning is shaped, including those explicitly identified in the teaching sequence
  • ideas and contexts that are relevant to students’ lives — for example, age-appropriate characters overcoming challenges
  • ideas that invite critical thinking 
  • layers of meaning and/or information that require students to infer meaning or make judgements

Footnotes

1 Texts whose subject matter and reading challenges are appropriate for a given student’s year level; for example, School Journal Level 4 texts are designed for students in Years 7–8 and so are a good model for the range of text forms and text complexity these students should encounter.

2 Different types of text forms can be studied together to show how they compare and contrast. Some texts can be studied in more detail than others.

3 A selection of poems, varying in length, complexity, and theme, from one or multiple poets, that support literary analysis and student engagement.

4 Non-fiction texts may be drawn from other learning area contexts to help students develop content knowledge alongside their understanding of text language and structure, for example, an information report in Science about water cycles or an extract of a speech studied in Social Sciences about the women’s suffrage movement.

5 While full-length texts are encouraged, carefully selected extracts, chapters, scenes, or visual segments may also be appropriate, provided they offer rich opportunities for student engagement.

6 High-quality texts are well crafted, engaging works of fiction or non-fiction that address meaningful themes, offer rich opportunities for interpretation and discussion, and provide significant educational value and challenge.

Oral Language

Knowledge

The facts, concepts, principles, and theories to teach

Practices

The skills, strategies, and applications to teach

During Year 7

During Year 8

During Year 7

During Year 8

Communicating and Presenting

Verbal reasoning

  • Precise and purposeful language is needed to analyse ideas, critique perspectives, interpret meaning, and structure arguments clearly for listeners.
  • Creating and answering questions supports deep thinking by exploring different perspectives, testing assumptions, and considering possible consequences.
  • Assumptions are things people believe without proof and questions (e.g. ‘What are we assuming about this person’s motivation?’ and ‘Where is the evidence for that?’) can be used to check whether those beliefs are fair or accurate.
  • Evaluative and modal language such as ‘more convincing’, ‘less reliable’, ‘stronger argument’, ‘likely’, and ‘unlikely’ helps us compare ideas, indicate probabilities, and communicate judgements.
  •  
  • Asking and answering open-ended questions that test assumptions and consider possible consequences
  • Using spoken language to make inferences and draw conclusions by interpreting ideas, justifying thinking, and using evidence from discussion or experience
  • Asking and answering follow-up questions that explore different viewpoints, consider possible consequences, and challenge assumptions
  • Using evaluative and modal language to critique ideas, weigh strengths and limitations, and structure oral responses that clearly support judgements with evidence

Presenting to others

  • Effective presentation planning involves selecting language, structure, tone, and content that suit the audience, purpose and form, for example:
    • in speeches, rhetorical questions (e.g. ‘Have you ever wondered why …?’) can engage the audience, inclusive pronouns (e.g. ‘us’, ‘we’, and ‘our’) help build connection, and cue cards can be used to support delivery
    • in storytelling, figurative language can layer meaning and build atmosphere, a clear narrative structure supports coherence, and pace, volume, and tone help convey mood and guide audience attention
    • in podcasts, conversational language (informal, natural-sounding speech that mimics everyday conversation) builds rapport, a planned sequence of segments or topics supports clarity and engagement, and the inclusion of examples, signposting, and analogies helps orient the listener.
  • Some presentation forms, such as formal debates, structured interviews, and mock trials, follow mandated conventions that support structured engagement and respectful disagreement.
  • Oral language structures (e.g. rhetorical devices, mihi, pepeha, whaikōrero) can reflect cultural identity and influence how messages are delivered and received.
  • Cultural expressions and content relatable to the audience can deepen engagement.
  • Voice modulation and non-verbal communication can guide audience attention, reinforce meaning, and strengthen impact.
  • Using form-specific language and structural devices to shape presentations
  • Identifying and using oral language structures from their own and others’ cultures in ways that are culturally responsive and appropriate to engage the audience
  • Using the conventions of structured presentation forms to acknowledge opposing views or present counter-arguments, supporting their stance with evidence
  • Identifying and planning for an audience’s age, interests, and prior knowledge about the topic
  • Using relatable experiences and cultural expressions (e.g. whakataukī, kīwaha, proverbs, popular sayings) to connect with the audience
  • Using examples, direct quotes, or citations to support an argument or view, selecting sources that are appropriate and persuasive for the intended audience
  • Varying pace, volume, and tone to keep the audience engaged
  • Using non-verbal communication techniques (including gesture and facial expressions) to support meaning
  • Anticipating and responding to an audience’s response, using relevant cultural expressions, examples and analogies, and figurative language that connects with their experiences
  • Using vocal expression effectively by adjusting volume, pace, and tone to suit the audience and purpose
  • Using a range of non-verbal communication techniques to enhance meaning and strengthen impact

Listening and responding

  • Paraphrasing means restating others’ ideas in their own words to show understanding or clarify meaning.
  • Effective discussions require everyone to show respect, include others, and work to understand each other by listening carefully, handling disagreements calmly, and staying focused on the topic.
  • Group discussions are often organised through the allocation of specified roles (e.g. facilitator, speaker, listener, questioner, and summariser) which help ensure the conversation is inclusive, focused, and respectful.
  • Clarifying and extending others’ ideas by paraphrasing, asking thoughtful questions, or offering connected examples
  • Identifying different perspectives within a discussion and summarising areas of agreement or difference
  • Taking on different roles in group discussions to support inclusive and focused talk
  • Shaping group dialogue by monitoring and adjusting tone, pace, and contributions to support progress
  • Challenging ideas constructively by testing logic, checking facts, exploring implications, and summarising areas of agreement or difference
  • Leading group discussions by managing turn-taking, reinforcing collaboration, and responding to social cues

Communication for Learning

Reflective and strategic communication

  • Explaining ideas clearly, asking questions, and responding to others during discussion can help students reflect on and adjust their thinking.
  • Giving and receiving verbal feedback using specific phrases (e.g. ‘One thing that worked well was …’, ‘Next time you could try …’) supports goal-focused learning.
  • Planning what to say, rephrasing when misunderstood, and acknowledging others’ contributions before responding are oral strategies that support respectful and constructive communication.
  • Reflective oral language (e.g. ‘I chose that strategy because …’, ‘Next time I’ll try …’) enables students to talk about their learning in ways that help them monitor progress, evaluate strategies, and plan next steps.
  • Respectful and inclusive language (e.g. ‘Can you tell me more about your view?’, ‘I see your point …’) supports constructive dialogue, especially during disagreement or when discussing different viewpoints.
  • Clarifying and connecting language (e.g. ‘So what you’re saying is …’, ‘That links to what we learnt before …’) helps students deepen understanding and make connections between ideas during collaborative discussion.
  • Reflecting on how discussion has influenced their own or others’ thinking, using specific examples from the dialogue
  • Giving and receiving feedback using specific, constructive phrases to support learning
  • Selecting and applying oral strategies to participate respectfully in group discussion
  • Using precise and purposeful oral language in self-reflection to articulate strategic choices, evaluate progress, identify strengths and challenges, and plan targeted next steps
  • Using respectful and inclusive language when discussing a controversial topic or managing a disagreement, including acknowledging differences of opinion and asking questions to better understand others’ viewpoints
  • Using clarifying and connecting oral language to build shared understanding, link ideas across contributions, and support collaborative thinking during discussion

Reading

Knowledge

The facts, concepts, principles, and theories to teach

Practices

The skills, strategies, and applications to teach

During Year 7

During Year 8

During Year 7

During Year 8

Reading Enrichment

Fluency

  • Skilled reading aloud requires using expression and intonation that suits the text form (e.g. poems, plays, narratives, and non-fiction texts) and purpose.
  • Skilled reading with expression requires understanding of the text and enhances audience comprehension.
  • Reading year-level texts accurately and expressively, including correct pronunciation of kupu Māori, reflecting understanding of the text while maintaining a natural pace of reading
  • Adjusting their reading expression and intonation according to the purpose of reading and the nature of the texts they are reading

Developing confident readers

  • Strategies for selecting texts at the right level of challenge include considering prior knowledge and reading an extract to assess whether the text is manageable and engaging.
  • Strategies for expanding their repertoire of texts include swapping recommendations with others (e.g. as part of a classroom reading community) and looking for different text types and forms that share high-interest topics.
  • Strategies for building reading stamina include setting reading goals, tracking progress, and using comprehension techniques — such as adapting the pace of reading or summarising content — to engage with longer and more complex texts.
  • Using a range of strategies for identifying and selecting texts, including how to choose an appropriate level of challenge and to expand their repertoire of texts
  • Discussing preferences and opinions about texts being engaged with independently
  • Applying strategies for sustained independent reading to engage with longer and more complex texts

Comprehension

Vocabulary

 

 

 

  • Expanding vocabulary, especially academic and content-specific terms, is essential for interpreting and engaging with increasingly complex texts.
  • Many English words come from different language origins (e.g. Anglo-Saxon, Latin, and Greek) and these origins affect both the meaning and structure of these words.
  • Greek and Latin roots and affixes are common in English words (e.g. tele–, bio–, auto–, pre–, sub–) and help with understanding unfamiliar vocabulary.
  • Strategies for finding the meaning of academic and content-specific words and phrases include using the context, knowledge of morphemes, knowledge of word origins, and a glossary or dictionary.
  • Text glossaries and online dictionaries can support pronunciation and understanding of kupu Māori in New Zealand texts.
  • Using a range of strategies to ascertain the meaning of academic and content-specific words and phrases in year-level texts
  • Identifying roots and affixes to determine meaning of unfamiliar words
  • Using year-appropriate academic and content-specific words and phrases with accuracy
  • Using print and digital dictionaries for pronunciation and definition, for both English and everyday te reo Māori

Text form, structure, style, and features

  • Texts on the same topic can be written in different forms, such as an article, a poem, a speech, or a narrative.
  • Authors use tools like characterisation, setting, and plot to shape meaning and influence how readers understand stories.
  • Texts are organised into structural parts (e.g. chapters, verses, sections, or scenes) that contribute to the development of meaning of the text as a whole.
  • Different forms have unique language, structural, and visual features that create different effects.
  • Language, structural, and visual features of a text are shaped by its purpose and audience.
  • Language features are used in texts to reflect purpose and audience, and to create particular effects. These include:
    • allusion
    • repetition
    • rhetorical questions
    • hyperbole
    • listing
    • cliché
    • contrast
    • puns.
  • Visual features are used in texts to reflect purpose and audience, and to create particular effects — such as angles, shots, framing, contrast, symbolism, and emanata.
  • A text can combine different forms or serve more than one purpose.
  • Social, historical, and cultural context influences the structure, style, and features of a text, and what it communicates.
  • Media texts use features such as images, audio, video, print, layout, and sound to inform, entertain, or persuade; they are shared through platforms such as TV, radio, newspapers, websites, and social media.
  • Digital media texts use deliberate structures, styles, and features (e.g. navigation menus, hyperlinks, interactive elements, and embedded videos) to shape meaning, guide the user experience, and influence how messages are received, interpreted, and shared.
  • Many media texts are digital; when shared online, they use digital features (e.g. hyperlinks, video, and audio) to communicate meaning and often combine modes to support understanding.
  • Identifying different text forms created for specific purposes and explaining how these shape the audience’s experience
  • Describing how authors use characterisation, setting, and plot to shape meaning in texts
  • Identifying structural parts of texts and explaining how these contribute to the overall meaning
  • Identifying language features in texts and explaining how these features contribute to meaning and influence the audience
  • Identifying visual features and explaining how these features contribute to meaning and influence the audience
  • Identifying and examining how specific features of digital media texts communicate messages and influence audience understanding and engagement
  • Examining different text forms, focusing on how characterisation, setting, and plot help communicate meaning
  • Examining texts that blend forms or purposes (e.g. poetry that aims to persuade or narrative texts based on factual content, such as biographies or historical novels)
  • Examining language and structural features across different text forms and considering their impact on the audience and their effectiveness in achieving the text’s purpose
  • Examining visual features and considering their impact on the audience and their effectiveness in achieving the text’s purpose
  • Examining how digital and media texts integrate structural, visual, and interactive features to shape meaning, engage audiences, and achieve specific communicative purposes

Comprehension strategies

  • Readers monitor and actively manage their understanding while reading a variety of texts and sources, by applying a range of strategies — such as annotating, rereading, reading ahead, asking questions, visualising, and consulting references — to support continued meaning making.
  • Inferences can deepen understanding of settings, characters, themes, and ideas.
  • Themes are the deeper ideas or messages in a text that many people can relate to — such as love, loyalty, bravery, injustice, and self-acceptance.
  • Making inferences involves interpreting subtle or layered information to uncover deeper meaning, helping readers to engage more critically with the author’s message or viewpoint.
  • Readers can compare and synthesise key ideas and themes within and across texts to deepen understanding.
  • Conclusions made about texts should be well supported by evidence from the text, and show insight into the author’s purpose, message, or viewpoint.
  • Monitoring and confirming their understanding across a range of texts and sources by selecting appropriate strategies
  • Making inferences within a text and at a whole text level to develop understanding of settings, characters, themes and ideas and justifying inferences with explicit and implicit evidence
  • Identifying and summarising key ideas and themes in texts, explaining how supporting details develop and connect these ideas
  • Drawing conclusions by selecting and explaining evidence that supports a reasoned interpretation of the author’s purpose, message, or viewpoint
  • Making inferences across a range of texts to deepen understanding of setting, characters, themes, and ideas, using explicit and implicit evidence — including subtle details or layered information — to interpret meaning
  • Summarising key ideas and themes within and across texts by comparing and synthesising key details to explain how they relate 
  • Drawing conclusions by synthesising evidence across a text to support a coherent interpretation of the author’s purpose, message, or viewpoint
     

Critical Analysis

Context and purpose

  • Texts are the result of deliberate choices in content, structure, and form to serve specific purposes (e.g. to inform, persuade, entertain, provoke, or challenge).
  • Texts represent topics, people, places, positions, perspectives, and ideas in particular ways, and can be influenced by the purpose, time and place in which they were created.
  • Texts from New Zealand — including pūrākau, biographies, oral histories, and contemporary literature — reflect the culture, history, and values of the communities who live here.
  • Media and digital media texts (e.g. news articles, social media posts, and digital advertisements) present people, ideas, events, and issues from particular perspectives that are shaped by the creator’s purpose, audience, and platform, which can lead to different representations of the same topic across contexts.
  • Considering the author’s purpose that underpins the text by examining content, structure, and form
  • Explaining how topics, people, places, or ideas are represented in texts 
  • Identifying the positions and perspectives that are represented and how the text is influenced by the time and place it was created
  • Explaining how texts from New Zealand reflect culture, history, or values through the way they represent topics, people, places, and ideas
  • Explaining similarities and differences in how media and digital media texts present the same topic or idea depending on the context and purpose
  • Comparing how topics, people, places, or ideas are represented in texts and considering how these representations reflect or challenge particular positions or perspectives
  • Comparing how multiple texts from New Zealand reflect cultural, historical, or societal values and discussing the different perspectives they present
  • Comparing how different media and digital media texts present the same issue or idea, considering differences in perspective, tone, and techniques used to influence the audience

Interpretations and connections

  • Texts often explore themes, messages, or viewpoints that connect with personal experiences, prior knowledge, and other texts, helping deepen understanding and reveal broader meaning.
  • Understanding of texts can deepen through respectful sharing and comparison of different interpretations.
  • Cultural and social elements in texts — such as values, rituals, ceremonies, symbolism, art, and social roles — reflect the practices, worldviews, and values of the communities and cultures they come from, and help readers understand deeper meanings.
  • Texts can be challenged or reinterpreted by examining the perspectives that are included or excluded, and how these choices shape meaning.
  • Explaining how ideas in texts connect to experiences, skills, knowledge, and other texts
  • Using evidence from a text, along with prior knowledge, to interpret meaning and compare with other texts
  • Acknowledging and building on others’ ideas, respectfully challenging other students’ interpretations
  • Identifying cultural and social elements that are represented in a range of texts and explaining how they help communicate meaning
  • Examining whose perspectives are included or excluded in texts and how meaning can be affirmed, challenged, or reinterpreted

Writing

Knowledge

The facts, concepts, principles, and theories to teach

Practices

The skills, strategies, and applications to teach

During Year 7

During Year 8

During Year 7

During Year 8

Transcription Skills

Handwriting

  • Handwriting stamina — the ability to write for extended periods — is developed and sustained through everyday practice.
  • Handwriting with fluency while maintaining legibility, size, spacing, and slope

Keyboarding

  • Efficient keyboarding relies on knowing the keyboard layout and using all fingers on the correct keys to improve speed and accuracy.
  • Regular keyboarding practice helps develop accuracy, speed, and the ability to write fluently.
  • Keyboarding fluency, accuracy, and stamina allow writers to shift their focus from typing to developing ideas and structuring their writing.
  • Using efficient keyboarding with fluency and accuracy

Spelling

[The content within <> is the grapheme and within // is the phoneme]

  • Some spelling patterns are ambiguous — they don’t follow regular rules for the sounds they make.
  • Ambiguous spelling patterns often come from older forms of English or other languages.
  • The schwa is the most common vowel sound in English, making a quiet short vowel /i/ or /u/ sound, and it can be spelt with any vowel letter.
  • Spelling words with ambiguous vowel spelling including: 
    • <ei> representing /long a/ (e.g. ‘reign’) or /long e/ (e.g. ‘ceiling’)
    • ‘ou’ representing short /u/ (e.g. ‘enough’)
    • ‘a’ representing /o/ (e.g. following ‘w’ as in ‘was’ and ‘qu’ as in ‘quad’)
       
  • Spelling words with ambiguous vowel spellings including: 
    • schwa for unstressed syllables (e.g. awkward, water) 
    • <or> representing /er/ following ‘w’ (e.g. worse)
       
  • Some words are spelt with less common or unusual consonant spellings. These words are often from other languages or old English.
  • Spelling words with ambiguous consonant spellings, including <gh> representing /f/ (e.g. ‘enough’) and <ch> representing /ch/, /sh/, or /k/
  • Words can be broken into syllables and morphemes, and many words share common patterns or parts that support understanding of their meaning and spelling.
  • Some words have silent letters, and they are often derived from old English or other languages.
  • A homophone is a word that sounds the same as another word but has a different meaning and usually a different spelling. 
  • Spelling homophones correctly supports clear communication and helps avoid confusion between words with different meanings.
  • Two-syllable prefixes usually keep their full spelling when added to root words.
  • Chameleon prefixes change spelling to ease pronunciation, but their meaning stays the same.
  • In a small number of words ending in ‘f’ or ‘ef’, the final consonant changes to ‘v’ before adding a suffix (e.g. ‘leaf’ → ‘leaves’).
  • When adding suffixes such as –ation, –ition, –tory, or –tive to verbs, the vowel in the last syllable often changes spelling and sound (e.g. ‘exclaim’ (long ‘a’) → ‘exclamation’ (short ‘a’)).
  • Spelling words with less common silent letters: <gn> = /n/, <gh> = /g/, <ps> = /s/, <pn> = /n/, <mn> = /m/, <rh> = /r/, and <pt> = /t/
  • Spelling words with two-syllable prefixes (e.g. ‘inter–’, ‘over–’, ‘circum–’, ‘contra–’, ‘ambi–’, ‘ante–’, ‘anti–’)
  • Spelling words with suffixes ‘–able’, ‘–ible’, and ‘–ure’
  • Using the correct spelling for advanced homophones (e.g. patients–patience, cite–site–sight, I’ll–aisle–isle)
  • Spelling words with common chameleon prefixes (e.g. ‘in–’, ‘im–’, ‘il–’, and ‘ir–’ meaning ‘not’, and ‘con–’, ‘col–’, ‘co–’, ‘com–’ ‘cor–’ meaning ‘with’ or ‘together’)
  • Spelling words where the consonant changes when adding the suffix (e.g. ‘mischief’ → ‘mischievous’) and where the vowel changes when adding the suffix (e.g. ‘explain’ → ‘explanation’)

Composition

Audience, purpose, and language choice

  • A text’s purpose, and the intended audience’s anticipated reaction, influences the author’s choice of content, form, genre, and style.
  • Different text types use specific features and techniques to create meaning.
  • A mode is a channel of communication, such as a written text, images, visual design, audio, or video.
  • The careful selection of a mode or modes can enhance a text’s messages.
  • Reflecting on how well writing achieves its purpose and communicates meaning helps improve clarity and impact.
  • Planning and writing with a specific audience and purpose in mind, making choices in form, genre, and style to communicate meaning and anticipating the reaction of the audience
  • Selecting and using a range of language features (e.g. listing, repetition, rhetorical questions) to meet the purpose of the writing and explaining how they help to communicate ideas to the audience
  • Selecting and using words that clearly express the intended meaning, including deciding between synonyms for effect
  • Using a physical or appropriate digital thesaurus to locate synonyms
     
  • Selecting or deliberately combining modes to enhance the message in texts in relation to their purpose
  • Using codes and conventions of different modes and text types in the texts they compose 
  • Considering the effectiveness of the writing in relation to its purpose
  • Deliberately selecting and using a range of language features (e.g. hyperbole, cliche, contrast, pun) to shape meaning and influence the audience, explaining the intended effect
  • Deliberately selecting and using words and phrases that clearly express their intended meaning, considering the nuances of synonyms to enhance clarity, impact, and personal voice
  • Using a physical or appropriate digital thesaurus to locate synonyms for different purposes
  • Authors deliberately choose words and language features to suit the text’s audience and purpose.
  • Words that are synonyms carry subtle differences in their meaning, tone, or intensity (often referred to as ‘shades of meaning’) which allow for precise expression.
  • Choosing the most accurate synonym can convey meaning with greater clarity and impact.
  • A thesaurus is a useful tool to support word choice.

Sentence structures, grammar, and 
punctuation

  • Using a variety of complex sentence structures adds depth and detail, and shows how ideas are linked.
  • A complex sentence with a relative or adjective clause includes extra information about a noun that helps make the writing more descriptive and detailed.
  • A relative (or adjective) clause is a group of words that describes a noun and begins with who, whom, whose, which, or that (a relative pronoun) or where, when, or why (a relative adverb).
  • A complex sentence that combines phrases and clauses helps writers express detailed and connected ideas.

       

  • Writing complex sentences with relative or adjective clauses
  • Using their understanding of different sentence structures to craft sentences that effectively communicate ideas, using complex sentences with adjectival or relative clauses to illustrate the connections between ideas
  • Writing compound-complex sentences
  • Using their understanding of sentence structures to craft sentences that effectively communicate ideas, using complex sentences that combine phrases and clauses to illustrate the connections between ideas
  • Some sentence parts — such as indirect objects, predicate nouns and adjectives, participles, and adverbial phrases — add detail and depth to writing, helping readers clearly understand what is meant.
  • Abstract nouns are words that name ideas, feelings, qualities, or concepts — things you cannot see or touch.
  • An adverbial phrase expands a sentence by providing more information about how, when, where, or to what extent something happens.
  • An indirect object is a person or thing that receives the benefit of the action, and it usually comes between the verb and the direct action.
  • A predicate noun is a word that comes after a linking verb (e.g. ‘is’) and explains who or what the subject is, renaming the subject.
  • A predicate adjective is an adjective that comes after a linking verb (e.g. ‘is’) and explains more about the subject.
  • A participle is a verb form with endings such as –ing, –ed, and
    –en that can act like an adjective and describe the noun. 
  • A gerund is a verb form that ends in
    –ing and functions as a noun in a sentence, such as ‘swimming’ or ‘reading’.
  • Crafting sentences that communicate meaning clearly, correctly using:
    • abstract nouns
    • verb tenses
    • adverbial phrases
       
  • Crafting sentences that communicate meaning clearly, correctly using:
    • indirect objects
    • predicate nouns
    • predicate adjectives
    • participles
    • gerunds
       
  • Writers make deliberate choices about using active or passive voice to control sentence focus and emphasis.
  • Using active voice helps make writing more direct, clearly showing who is doing the action.
  • Passive voice focuses on the action or the person/thing receiving it and is useful when the doer is unknown or not as important as the action.
  • A colon is used to separate a list after a complete sentence or for introducing explanations.
  • A semicolon is used to separate two independent clauses that are closely related in meaning, helping to avoid a run-on sentence or a comma splice (an error where a comma is incorrectly used instead of a semicolon or a full stop).
  • Distinguishing between active and passive voice and making deliberate choices about which to use when writing
  • Using colons for introducing a list after a complete sentence (e.g. ‘The recipe calls for several ingredients: flour, sugar, eggs, and butter’)
  • Using colons for introducing explanations or examples (e.g. ‘There was only one thing left to do: finish the project’)
  • Using semicolons to separate two independent clauses (e.g. ‘The weather was perfect for a hike; the sun was shining and the sky was clear’)

Writing to entertain

  • Narratives, poems, and descriptive texts use language and structure to entertain, evoke emotion, and engage readers.
  • Real or imagined experiences can be shaped creatively to build interest, suspense, or emotional connection with the reader.
  • Paragraphs, stanzas, and scenes help organise ideas and events in a logical or artistic sequence, guiding the reader through the text.
  • Descriptive details and sensory language help readers visualise and emotionally connect with the text.
  • A strong conclusion provides a sense of closure, resolution, or reflection that ties back to the main ideas or events in the text.
  • Writing texts to entertain that:
    • present real or imagined experiences or events
    • introduce a situation and setting that help the reader, listener, or viewer understand what is happening and where
    • are well structured, using paragraphs, stanzas, or scenes to create a sense of sequence
    • include carefully selected words and phrases, relevant descriptive details, and sensory language to convey experiences and events
    • provide a resolution or sense of closure that follows from the rest of the text
  • Writing texts to entertain that:
    • present real or imagined experiences or events or a combination of these
    • orient the reader, listener, or viewer by establishing a situation and setting that supports the purpose of the text
    • use a variety of techniques to sequence events, thoughts, or experiences and signal shifts from one setting or idea to another
    • include carefully selected words and phrases, relevant descriptive details, and sensory language to capture the action and convey experiences and events
    • provide a resolution that follows from and reflects on the rest of the text
       

Writing to inform

  • Informative texts are written to communicate information, explain ideas, or present arguments clearly and logically.
  • Different forms of informative writing (e.g. reports, explanations, arguments, discussions, articles, biographies, character profiles, scripts for presentations, and responses to text) have their own specific features.
  • Headings, illustrations, charts, tables, and multimedia elements can support understanding by organising and visually representing information.
  • Transition words and phrases (e.g. ‘for example’, ‘however’, ‘in contrast’) help link ideas and guide the reader through the text.
  • Relevant facts, definitions, examples, and quotations strengthen the credibility and clarity of an informative text.
  • Referencing sources shows where information came from and helps the reader decide if it is reliable.
  • Information from media, including digital sources of information, needs to be checked against other text sources to confirm validity.
  • Precise language and domain-specific vocabulary help explain complex ideas accurately and effectively.
  • A concluding paragraph should summarise key points and leave the reader with a clear understanding of the topic.
  • Information from media, including digital sources of information, needs to be checked against other text sources to confirm validity.
  • Creative Commons means content like pictures or music can be used if the creator is named and the rules are followed.
  • Writing texts to inform that:
    • clearly introduce the topic and organise ideas and information logically into paragraphs
    • include headings and visual features such as illustrations, charts, tables, and multimedia (when useful for aiding comprehension)
    • include words and phrases to clarify, illustrate, or compare ideas
    • include relevant facts, definitions, examples, and quotations
    • provide references for the sources of information used in the text
    • include precise language and domain-specific vocabulary to explain the topic 
    • provide a concluding paragraph which highlights the most important points
  • Considering whether a digital or media text is trustworthy by considering who created it, what evidence it presents, and how the information is supported or sourced
  • Using digital content responsibly by citing sources and, where appropriate, asking permission before sharing
     
  • Writing texts to inform that:
    • clearly introduce the topic, provide a preview of what will be covered, and organise ideas and information logically within and across paragraphs
    • include considered use of headings and visual features such as illustrations, charts, tables, and multimedia
    • link ideas within and across categories of information using carefully selected and varied transition words, phrases, and clauses (e.g. similarly, consequently, conversely)
    • include relevant and carefully selected facts, definitions, examples, and quotations 
    • provide references for the sources of information used in the text 
    • include precise language and domain-specific vocabulary to explain the topic
    • provide a concluding paragraph which highlights the most important points and encourages further reflection
  • Interrogating the validity of digital and media texts by examining authorship, use of evidence, and signs of bias 
  • Engaging in the responsible use of digital content, including linking to or citing sources for created texts and considering copyright and Creative Commons when sharing to a wider audience

Writing to persuade

  • Persuasive texts aim to convince the audience to adopt a particular viewpoint or take a specific action.
  • Different forms of persuasive writing (e.g. opinion pieces, advertisements, letters to the editor, arguments, presentations, debates, and discussions) have their own specific features. 
  • Clearly stating a preferred position helps the audience understand the writer’s viewpoint. 
  • Persuasive texts use emotive words and phrases to convince readers of their preferred position.
  • Organising reasons and evidence logically strengthens the argument.
  • Using trustworthy sources helps persuade the audience. 
  • Persuasive conclusions often restate the key points and leave a strong final impression.
  • Providing evidence to undermine the opposing side of the argument strengthens the writer’s position.
  • Rhetorical devices (e.g. hyperbole, anecdotes, and contrast) are used to shape meaning, persuade audiences, and enhance communication by adding emphasis and emotional impact.
  • Writing texts to persuade that:
    • introduce a preferred position and organise the reasons and evidence clearly
    • support the stated position with clear reasons and relevant evidence, using trustworthy sources
    • include emotive language that is compelling but respectful 
    • have a concluding section that clearly restates their position
  • Writing texts to persuade that: 
    • clearly introduce a preferred position, acknowledge alternative or opposing position(s), and organise the reasons and evidence logically 
    • support the preferred position with logical reasoning and relevant evidence, using accurate, trustworthy sources 
    • include emotive language and rhetorical devices that are compelling but respectful
    • present the opposing position with evidence, pointing out why the preferred position is stronger 
    • have a concluding section that clearly restates their position and ends with a strong statement that reinforces why the reader should support it

Writing Processes

Planning

  • Different writing purposes, forms, and genres need different planning and note-taking strategies (e.g. graphic organisers, outlines, mind maps) to help organise ideas clearly.
  • Categorising and synthesising notes enables writers to identify patterns, gaps, and connections in their thinking.
  • Effective planning helps clarify ideas, structure content, and meet the intended writing purpose.
  • Writers improve their work by setting specific goals for their writing and reflecting on how their planning strategies supported those goals and shaped the final product.
  • Using appropriate planning and note-taking strategies for specific writing tasks 
  • Taking notes using key words and phrases to support idea development
  • Organising ideas logically into paragraphs, sections, or stanzas
  • Setting, working towards, and self-evaluating against specific writing goals based on analysis of writing content and processes
  • Selecting and adapting planning and note-taking strategies to meet the needs of the writing purpose, form, or genre
  • Synthesising and prioritising notes using key words, phrases, and annotations to support idea development and coherence
  • Structuring ideas into cohesive sections, using transitions and paragraph organisation that suit the writing purpose
  • Reflecting on planning strategies, considering their effectiveness in supporting the writing purpose

Drafting

  • Notes and key ideas from planning need to be turned into writing that follows the usual structure of the selected text type.
  • Multi-paragraph texts should be clearly organised to suit the writing purpose and audience.
  • Transferring ideas from planning to writing, including transferring main ideas to topic sentences
  • Using structural features such as linking words across the whole text to support cohesion
  • Writing multi-paragraph texts for specific purposes, organising the information and ideas using structures that best suit the purpose and audience (e.g. chronological order, cause and effect, compare and contrast, or narrative sequencing)

Revising and editing

  • Revising is a process that involves improving the content, style, features, and tone of a text to better suit the audience, purpose, and message.
  • Feedback can provide valuable information about how the writing could be improved, and writers need to think carefully about whether or how to use it.
  • Carefully checking writing for spelling, punctuation, and formatting errors improves clarity, and tools such as digital dictionaries and editing software can help.
  • Making revisions to the content, style, features, and tone of draft texts and adding, deleting, and re-sequencing words and sentences to improve clarity, focus, grammar, and coherence for the intended audience and purpose
  • Requesting and selectively using peer feedback to determine where revision is needed, justifying their decision when the feedback is not used
  • Editing draft texts, checking for errors in spelling, punctuation, and formatting

Word or phrase

Description

Abstract noun

A noun that represents an idea, quality, or state, rather than a concrete object (e.g. love, freedom, happiness).

Adverbial clause

An adverbial clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a verb, and functions as an adverb. It modifies a verb, adjective, or another adverb by answering questions such as how, when, where, why, or under what conditions. For example, ‘because she was tired’ in ‘She went to bed early because she was tired’.

Adverbial phrase

An adverbial phrase is a group of words that functions as an adverb in a sentence. It does not contain a subject and verb (unlike a clause). It modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb by providing more information about how, when, where, why, or to what extent something happens. For example, ‘in a hurry’ in ‘She left in a hurry’.

Audience

The group of people who engage with a text (e.g. for written texts, the audience is readers who interact with and interpret the content presented by the author).

Augmentative and alternative communication (AAC)

Supports communication and language development for students who, due to speech difficulties, cannot rely on speech alone to be heard and understood. AAC includes both augmentative communication, which supplements existing speech, and alternative communication, which replaces speech when it is not possible.

Automaticity

The automatic processing of information (e.g. when a reader or writer does not need to pause to work out words as they read or write). The outcome is being a fluent reader, writer, and communicator.

Chameleon prefix

Can be pronounced or spelt differently depending on the first letter of the root word, while retaining the same meaning (e.g. the prefix ‘ad–’, meaning to/towards, changes to ‘ac–’ when used in the word ‘accept’ and ‘at–’ in the word ‘attract’).

Clause

A group of words that includes a subject and a verb (e.g. in the sentence ‘The baby cries when it is hungry’, ‘The baby cries’ and ‘when it is hungry’ are both clauses. The first one could stand alone as a sentence, so it is an independent clause. The second one could not stand alone, so it is a dependent clause).

Code

An agreed-upon system of signs or symbols used to create meaning within a mode (e.g. the code of letters, words, and punctuation in the written mode, the code of facial expressions and body language in the gestural mode).

Complex sentence

Contains one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses. Dependent clauses often begin with subordinating conjunctions like ‘because’, ‘since’, ‘if’, ‘when’, or ‘although’. For example, in ‘If it is raining, I will stay home’:

  • independent clause: ‘I will stay home’
  • dependent clause: ‘If it is raining’.

Compound sentence

Created when two or more independent clauses are joined using a conjunction (such as ‘and’, ‘but’, ‘or’, ‘nor’, ‘for’, ‘so’, or ‘yet’) or a semi-colon, colon, or dash (but not a comma) to show a connection between two more ideas. Each independent clause in a compound sentence can stand alone as a complete sentence. For example, in ‘I wanted to go for a walk, but it started to rain’:

  • independent clause one: ‘I wanted to go for a walk’
  • independent clause two: ‘it started to rain’
  • coordinating conjunction: ‘but’.

Compound-complex sentence

The most complicated type of sentence. It consists of:

  • at least two independent clauses (which can each stand alone as a complete sentence)
  • at least one dependent clause (which cannot stand alone as a complete sentence).

These sentences enable us to articulate more elaborate and detailed thoughts, making them excellent tools for explaining complex ideas or describing extended sequences of events.

For example, in ‘Although she had left home on time, she was still late for school, and the teacher marked her absent’:

  • independent clause one: ‘she was still late for school’
  • independent clause two: ‘the teacher marked her absent’
  • coordinating conjunction: ‘and’
  • dependent clause: ‘Although she had left home on time’.

Connective

Word or phrase that joins sentences, clauses, or words together. Connectives can be conjunctions, prepositions, or adverbs. They show the relationship between different parts of a sentence or between different sentences, helping to make text and spoken language more coherent. There are many different categories of connective. For example:

  • coordinating conjunctions: and, but, or
  • subordinating conjunctions: because, since
  • time and order connectives: first, after that, previously, suddenly, subsequently, finally, in previous years
  • addition: also, in addition, furthermore
  • illustration: for example, for instance, such as
  • contrast: but, however, alternatively, on the other hand, in contrast.

Consonant digraph

A grapheme written with two or more consonant letters that, together, represent one phoneme (e.g. ‘ch’ in ‘chair’, ‘ph’ in ‘phone’).

Consonant phoneme

A speech sound in which the breath is at least partly obstructed (e.g. /s/, /p/, /ch/, /m/). Consonants are produced by blocking or restricting airflow, using the vocal cords and the tongue, lips, and teeth.

Aotearoa New Zealand English has 24 consonant phonemes, and te reo Māori has 10 consonant phonemes. Consonant phonemes may be voiced or voiceless.

Convention

An established guideline for a particular type or mode of language (e.g. using a volume or tone appropriate to the context) or a particular type of text (e.g. play scripts contain stage directions).

Decodable text

Specially designed reading material used in early literacy instruction. These texts are composed of words that align with the phonics skills students have been taught, allowing them to practise decoding words in connected text, using their knowledge of letter–sound relationships.

Digraph

Two letters representing one phoneme. This sound is different from the individual sounds of the letters when they are pronounced separately. Digraphs can be composed of either consonants or vowels (e.g. ‘ch’ in ‘chips’ and ‘ai’ in ‘rain’).

Diphthong

A sound made by combining two vowels, when it starts as one vowel sound and goes to another (e.g. ‘oy’ in ‘oil’). Diphthongs are sometimes called ‘gliding vowels’.

Emergent bilingual/multilingual

Students who are developing proficiency in English while continuing to develop their home language(s).

Fluency

The ability to express oneself easily and articulately. The ability to speak, read, or write rapidly and accurately, focusing on meaning and phrasing and without having to give attention to individual words or common forms and sequences of language. Fluency is essential in communication as it allows for clear and effective expression. 

Fragment

A collection of words that doesn’t form a grammatically complete sentence. Typically, it is missing a subject, a verb, or both, or it is a dependent clause that is not linked to an independent clause.

Gerund

Verb form ending in ‘–ing’ that functions as a noun (e.g. ‘Swimming is fun’).

Genre

Category of texts which have particular structures, styles, features, and content (e.g. science fiction, fantasy, autobiography).

Grapheme

The smallest unit of a written language. In English, graphemes have one, two, three, or four letters and usually represent one phoneme (e.g. ‘f’, ‘th’, ‘o’, ‘ee’). ‘X’ is an exception, as it represents two phonemes, /k/ /s/.

Grapheme–phoneme correspondence

The relationship between spoken sound units and the written symbols that represent them. This concept (the alphabetic principle) is fundamental in phonics, developing students’ ability to identify and manipulate phonemes and link them to their corresponding graphemes to read and spell words. 

High-frequency word

A word that appears frequently in written and spoken language and includes at least one grapheme–phoneme correspondence that students haven’t been explicitly taught yet or that is so unusual that it is considered irregular.

Identity

A set of characteristics that define, and make recognisable and distinct, an individual person or group of people. An identity, and its characteristics, can be personal, local, or national, and can be shaped by politics, gender, race, sexuality, culture, and the events and narratives that surround these factors.

Indirect object

The recipient of the direct object (e.g. ‘He gave her a gift’).

  • subject: ‘He’
  • verb: ‘gave’
  • direct object: ‘a gift’ (what was given)
  • indirect object: ‘her’ (the recipient of the gift).

Inference

The process of drawing conclusions or making educated guesses about a whole text (global inferences) or part of a text (local inferences) based on the information provided in a text, combined with the reader’s own knowledge and experiences. This process, often described as ‘reading between the lines’, helps readers understand implied meanings, predict outcomes, and grasp deeper insights that are not explicitly stated.

Insight

This can be demonstrated by students in a number of ways, such as showing empathy and sophistication, looking beyond the text, exploring multiple possible interpretations, and showing awareness of the author’s intentions.

Language feature

A specific language technique that creates or supports meaning, including figurative language (e.g. metaphor, simile, personification) and sound devices (e.g. onomatopoeia, alliteration, assonance).

Literacy

The ability to communicate meaning through a text and to understand meaning in texts others have created.

Literacy knowledge and skills underpin and contribute to developing the complex language needed for advanced interpretation and expression of meaning across an increasingly diverse range of oral, visual, written, and digital texts.

There are literacy skills and knowledge necessary for each curriculum learning area. This includes the technical and specialist language of those areas, as well as the different approaches and ways of using language across learning areas.

Literacy skills include the ability to critically interpret, manage and create meaning through a range of digital communication channels.

Literary feature

Techniques or elements used by authors to convey meaning, evoke emotions, or enhance their storytelling. These features can include the use of language, structure, and style to enrich the text and engage the audience.

Literary tradition

The collective body of works, styles, and conventions that are characteristic of a particular culture, language, or historical period. This encompasses the ways in which literature is created, shared, and interpreted within a specific context. For example, Aotearoa New Zealand has a distinctive national literary tradition.

Meaning making

Using personal and cultural knowledge, experiences, strategies, and awareness to derive or convey meaning when listening, speaking, reading, writing or viewing; this requires language comprehension, background knowledge, an understanding of the forms and purposes of different text types and an awareness that texts are intended for an audience.

Metacognition

Involves being aware of and understanding their own thought processes, which helps them plan, monitor, and evaluate their learning strategies. Linked to the science of learning, this self-awareness enhances their ability to retain information and solve problems. 

Mode

A system of signs and symbols with agreed-upon meanings. Refers to the various forms and methods through which literacy is expressed and communicated. They are essential for developing comprehensive literacy skills, enabling individuals to effectively communicate and understand information in various contexts. Modes of meaning include:

  • oral language: live or recorded speech
  • written language: writing, reading
  • visual mode: still or moving image, sculpture
  • audio mode: music, ambient sounds, noises
  • gestural mode: movements of the hands and arms, facial expressions, eye movements and gaze, dance
  • spatial mode: proximity, spacing, layout, interpersonal distance.

Morpheme

The smallest units of meaning in a language, which can be prefixes, suffixes, or root words. Knowledge of morphemes is crucial for reading, spelling, and vocabulary development.

Multimodal text

Multimodal texts combine two or more modes of communication to convey a message. These modes can include oral language, written language, audio, gestural, spatial, and visual modes. Examples of multimodal texts include picture books, websites, performance poetry, films, news reports, infographics, videos, and digital presentations. 

Narrative text

A type of writing that tells a story or describes a sequence of events (e.g. diary, biography, autobiography, personal narrative, fable, myth, legend, fairytale, poem, play). The primary purpose of narrative texts is to entertain or inform the reader by presenting a coherent and engaging story, organised around events and literary elements such as setting, characters, and a problem and solution.

Orthographic mapping

The cognitive process through which a word is permanently stored in memory for instant and effortless recall. Orthographic mapping is crucial for developing fluent reading skills. It enables readers to recognise words automatically without needing to sound them out each time, which frees up cognitive resources for comprehension and higher-order thinking. Key aspects of orthographic mapping include: 

  • letter–sound connections: Readers map the sounds they hear in a word to the letters they see.
  • pronunciation and spelling: The pronunciation of a word is linked to its spelling, allowing for quick recognition.
  • meaning: The meaning of the word is also stored, making it easier to understand and use in context.

Participle

Verb form used as an adjective or to talk about actions in particular tenses.

  • Present participles end in ‘–ing’ and can be used as adjectives (e.g. ‘running water’) or to describe continuous actions (e.g. ‘I am running’). Note that this form is called the gerund when used as a noun (e.g. ‘Does he like running?’).
  • Past participles often end in ‘–ed’ or ‘–en’ and can be used as adjectives (e.g. ‘broken vase’) or with ‘have’ to describe actions in the present perfect tense (e.g. ‘She has broken the vase’).

Phoneme

The smallest unit of sound in a language that can distinguish one word from another. When combined with other sounds, they form a meaningful unit. For example, the sounds represented by the letters ‘p’, ‘b’, ‘d’, and ‘t’ are phonemes because they differentiate words like ‘pad,’ ‘bad’, and ‘bat’.

Phonemic awareness

The ability to hear, differentiate, and attend to the individual sounds within words. A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound in a spoken word. For example, ‘frog’ and ‘box’ both have four sounds.

Phonics

An approach to teaching reading that focuses on the sounds represented by letters in words, rather than the names of the letters themselves.

Phrase

A small group of words within a sentence that does not make sense on its own, because it does not contain a complete verb or a subject.

Position (verb)

To place or present an idea, character, or argument in a particular way to influence how it is perceived by the audience.

Predicate

The part of a sentence (or clause) that states what the subject does or is. For example, in the sentence ‘Native short-tailed pekapeka hunt insects on the forest floor’, the predicate is ‘hunt insects on the forest floor’.

Predicate adjective

An adjective that follows a linking verb and describes the subject (e.g. ‘blue’ in ‘The sky looks blue’).

Predicate noun

A noun that follows a linking verb and describes the subject (e.g. ‘teacher’ in ‘She is a teacher’).

R-controlled vowel pattern

Graphemes which represent the phonemes /ar/, /er/, /or/, /eer/, /air/, and /ure/.

Note: In the general Aotearoa New Zealand English accent, /eer/ and /air/ have started being pronounced as the same phoneme by many speakers over recent decades (e.g. ‘hear’ and ‘hair’ are pronounced the same).

Schwa

The vowel sound in an unstressed syllable. It can be represented by many different letters and often sounds like the short ‘u’ sound ‘uh’, the short ‘i’ sound ‘ih’, the ‘er’ in letter, or the ‘o’ in police. 

Scope and sequence

‘Scope’ refers to the concepts or skills that need to be taught. ‘Sequence’ refers to the order in which the concepts and skills are introduced. This ensures that foundational knowledge is built before introducing more complex concepts. This structured approach helps students make connections, facilitating deeper understanding and retention of information.

Seminal text

Seminal texts are influential works that introduce new ideas, frameworks, critiques, or stylistic approaches that significantly shape how others engage with a particular topic. Their importance lies in the way they initiate new directions, challenge existing norms, and become enduring reference points for future work. Their influence may be constructive or controversial — what matters is the depth and reach of their impact, as such texts are continually revisited, debated, and built upon.

Simple sentence

A simple sentence must:

  • contain a subject (noun or noun phrase) and a verb (a doing or action word)
  • make complete sense or represent a complete thought on its own.

Simple sentences are the building blocks of more complex sentence structures and are essential for clear and concise communication. Sentences not containing a subject or verb are ‘incomplete sentences’ or ‘fragments’.

Split digraph

A vowel digraph which has been split up by a consonant letter between the two vowel letters. For example: 

  • ‘a–e’ as in ‘cake’
  • ‘i–e’ as in ‘five’
  • ‘o–e’ as in ‘code’
  • ‘e–e’ as in ‘sphere’
  • ‘u–e’ as in ‘rule’.

Statistical learning

In the context of reading, statistical learning is the ability to recognise patterns and regularities in written language. It is a form of implicit learning and includes becoming aware of the probability that a particular grapheme will correspond to a particular phoneme.

Structural feature

The way that a text is shaped or organised (e.g. paragraphing, film transitions, flashbacks, a clear opening, middle, and end).

Stylistic feature

The way in which language choices are arranged to create clarity and variety in a text (e.g. vocabulary selection, syntax).

Subject

The person or thing (noun, pronoun, or noun phrase) that a sentence or clause is about. For example, ‘rain’ in ‘The rain beat down on the roof’.

Sometimes sentences are phrased in the passive voice, changing the subject, as a way to emphasise a different part of the action (e.g. in ‘The roof was beaten by the rain’, ‘roof’ becomes the subject, performing the verb phrase ‘be beaten by’).

Summarising

Condensing the main ideas and key points of a longer text into a shorter version, using your own words.

Syllable

A single, unbroken vowel sound within a spoken word. They typically contain a vowel sound and perhaps one or more accompanying consonants. All words contain at least one syllable. Syllables are sometimes referred to as the ‘beats’ of a word that form its rhythm, and breaking a word into syllables can help learners with phonetic spelling.

Syntax

The rules followed to arrange words and phrases to create logical and grammatically correct clauses and sentences. It involves the rules that govern the structure of sentences, including word order, sentence structure, and the relationship between words.

Systematic synthetic phonics

A method of teaching reading that emphasises the relationship between letters (graphemes) and sounds (phonemes) in a structured and sequential manner. The term ‘synthetic’ comes from the synthesising or blending of sounds to make a word and enable children to read.

Text

An identified stretch of language, used as a means for communication or the focus of learning and investigation. Texts are constructed from one or more of the modes of meaning (oral language, written language, audio, gestural, spatial, and visual modes). They are a language event that we require language skills to understand. Creators construct texts to convey meaning to an audience. For example, a speech, poem, poster, video clip, advertisement, novel, film.

Text form

The essential structure of a text type with characteristic features (e.g. short story, poem, magazine article, speech, film, novel, letter to the editor).

Text type

The purpose associated with, and conventions of, that particular text (e.g. narrative, informational, persuasive).

Transcription

The set of skills and processes involved in converting spoken language into written form on the page or screen, including handwriting, spelling and keyboarding.

Trigraph

A cluster of three letters that collectively produce a specific single sound. It can be composed entirely of consonants or vowels, or it can be a mix of both (e.g. –igh, –tch).

Unstressed syllable

The part of the word that doesn’t receive emphasis or stress.

Links to English supports and resources:

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