NZC - English Phase 2 (Years 4–6)

During Year 4

During Year 5

During Year 6

During Year 4

During Year 5

During Year 6

Communicating and Presenting 

Verbal reasoning

• Words such as ‘if’, ‘might’, or ‘could’ are used to explore possibilities or imagined scenarios (e.g. ‘I might go to the beach if it is sunny tomorrow’). 
• Asking and answering questions such as ‘What else could happen?’ helps build on ideas. 
• Asking and answering clarification and cause and effect questions such as ‘Why did that happen?’ helps explore reasons and results. 

• Words and phrases such as ‘because’, ‘so’, ‘this means that …’ are used to explain reasons and ideas, show results, and link concepts (e.g. ‘The bus broke down, so I was late’). 
• Asking and answering questions such as ‘How does the author’s view in this text differ from the speaker’s in the video?’ helps compare and explore different viewpoints or opinions. 
• Asking and answering hypothetical and conditional questions such as ‘What if the person had made a different choice?’ encourages imaginative thinking about possibilities. 
• Asking and answering questions such as ‘What evidence from both texts supports your opinion?’ helps justify thinking and make connections.  

• Words and phrases such as ‘better’, ‘more effective’, and ‘important’ are used to compare ideas, explain preferences, or indicate a judgement about how good, useful or important something is (e.g. ‘Using a visual is a more effective way to explain this science concept than just using text, because it helps people understand how the parts work together’). 
• Asking and answering evaluative and probing questions such as ‘Which would be more effective?’ or ‘Why do you think that?’ encourage reflection, analysis, and reconsideration of ideas. 

• Using conditional and imaginative language (e.g. ‘if’, ‘might’, ‘could’) to describe possible actions, outcomes, or solutions when responding to ideas or situations 
• Asking and responding to questions that seek clarification, extend ideas, and explore causes and consequences 

• Using connective language (e.g. ‘because’, ‘so’, ‘this means that …’) to explain ideas and begin to justify thinking by linking concepts across topics or texts 
• Asking and responding to questions that compare viewpoints, explore hypothetical ideas, and justify reasoning by connecting ideas across topics or texts 

• Using evaluative language (e.g. ‘better’, ‘more effective’, ‘important’) to compare ideas or approaches  
• Asking and responding to probing questions that challenge assumptions and explore consequences, and supporting or critiquing ideas using evidence 

Presenting to others 

• Clear presentations have a strong introduction, well-organised main ideas, and a conclusion. 
• Effective speakers choose words, ideas, and a presentation style (e.g. formal, informal, serious, humorous) that match the audience’s knowledge, needs, and interests. 
• A speaker’s message is strengthened by including supporting evidence. 

• A speaker’s message is strengthened by including responses to differing opinions. 

• Presenting their ideas clearly, giving an introduction and conclusion when appropriate 
• Being aware of audience needs and expectations  
• Planning and adapting the content of a presentation for a specific audience and setting  
• Drawing on knowledge of the world to support their own point of view and explore different perspectives

• Planning and organising the content of a presentation so that the audience can make connections between points 
• Being aware of audience needs and expectations 
• Planning and adapting the content of a presentation for a specific audience and setting 
• Giving supporting evidence (e.g. citing a text, a previous example, or a historic event)

• Planning and constructing a detailed argument or narrative 
• Anticipating and planning for audience needs and expectations, leading to more tailored and effective communication 
• Assessing different viewpoints and presenting counter arguments 
• Using direct quotes or citations to support an argument or view 

• Introductions in presentations or other speaking situations in New Zealand can include practices such as pepeha and mihi, acknowledging place and people, introducing the speaker, and supporting whanaungatanga.  
• Pepeha is a traditional Māori introduction that establishes a person’s identity and connection to their ancestors through whakapapa, often including connections to their maunga, awa, iwi, hapū, and tūrangawaewae. 

• Beginning a presentation or speaking situation with an introduction that helps make connections with the audience, appropriate to the context. For example, sharing pepeha, which may include sharing whakapapa for Māori, using mihi to acknowledge people and place, or referring to shared experiences or interests to help the audience feel connected and engaged 

• Purposeful use of body language — including facial expressions, gestures, posture, voice, and proximity (distance from others) — can convey meaning, highlight key ideas, express emotions and attitudes, and influence how the audience responds. 
• Skilled speakers change their tone, volume, and pace to fit the message, audience, and situation. 

• Using body language to support meaning when presenting to an audience 
• Considering their position and posture when presenting to an audience 
• Using tone, volume, and pace to influence meaning and engage listeners 

• Using body language for effect when presenting to an audience 
• Projecting their voice to a large audience and adjusting tone, volume, and pace to suit the purpose and audience 

• Using posture and body language to develop a stage presence when presenting to an audience 
• Using tone, volume, and pace strategically to influence listeners in various informal and formal settings 

Teaching Considerations: Non-verbal communication 

All year levels 

• Be mindful of cultural differences and unique neurodivergent preferences when teaching about non-verbal communication, as these can influence students’ interpretations, degree of familiarity, and comfort. 

Listening and responding to others 

• Discussions have different purposes (e.g. sharing ideas, asking questions, giving feedback, and solving problems) and ways of participating (e.g. offering suggestions or opinions, and listening and responding to others' ideas). 
• Comments such as ‘Tell me more …’ and questions such as ‘Can you give me an example?’ encourage others to add more information. 
• Questions such as ‘What do you think?’ or ‘Would you like to add something?’ encourage others to participate in discussions. 
• What is said in a discussion can affect how others feel, so words need to be chosen carefully. 

• Effective discussions involve: 
  • listening to others and asking questions that connect to what they have said 
  • noticing when someone goes off topic and helping bring the conversation back to the main idea  
  • checking for understanding by asking questions or saying things in a different way. 

• Effective discussions involve: 
  • sharing different opinions in a respectful way, so everyone feels safe to speak 
  • noticing when people have similar ideas and working together to reach an agreement 
  • asking clear questions to help clarify complex information 
  • noticing who has or hasn’t spoken and inviting others to share their thoughts 
  • thinking about what others have said and explaining how it has changed or confirmed existing ideas. 

• Making comments that encourage discussion and asking clarifying questions 
• Giving and responding to natural prompts for turn-taking in conversation and considering the impact of their words on others 

• Actively participating in discussions by picking up on others’ contributions and asking relevant questions 
• Identifying off-topic discussions 
• Clarifying and paraphrasing information 

• Challenging others’ ideas with sensitivity  
• Identifying similarities in perspectives and considering where collective agreement can be reached  
• Asking specific questions to clarify complex information 
• Developing an awareness of group dynamics and inviting those who haven’t spoken to contribute 
• Explaining how their thinking has changed or solidified in response to discussion 

Communication for Learning 

Reflective and strategic communication 

• Goal-setting language (e.g. ‘My goal is to …’, ‘I’ll try to …’) can be used to express intentions and plan learning. 
• Emotion words (e.g. ‘frustrated’, ‘proud’, ‘confused’) and explanatory phrases (e.g. ‘Because I didn’t understand …’) help explain reactions to learning. 
• Collaborative phrases (e.g. ‘We could try a different way’) can help students express ideas and work together effectively. 
• Reflective sentence starters (e.g. ‘I found it tricky when …’, ‘Next time I’ll …’) can help students express their thinking and learning choices. 

• Strategic language (e.g. ‘Next time I’ll try …’, ‘I chose this because …’) can help to justify choices and plan alternatives.  
• Emotion words and metacognitive phrases (e.g. ‘I felt stuck, so I paused to think …’, ‘I was nervous, but I kept going because …’) help to reflect on how emotions influence learning strategies and contribute to persistence or disengagement. 
• Collaborative and problem-solving phrases (e.g. ‘I think the issue might be …’, ‘Should we try a new strategy …’) support joint decision-making and adjusting plans during group problem-solving. 

• Empathetic language (e.g. ‘It sounds like you felt …’, ‘I think I would feel the same …’) can help acknowledge and respond to others’ emotions during learning. 
• Responsive language (e.g. ‘That’s a good idea — what if we also …’, ‘I see what you mean — maybe we could add …’) helps students acknowledge others’ contributions, extend ideas, and co-construct solutions during group learning. 

• Expressing learning goals and intended approaches using appropriate oral language 
• Describing emotional responses to learning and explaining what caused them 
• Using collaborative language to work together and complete tasks 
• Using reflective oral structures to talk about what was challenging, what helped, and what they might do differently next time 

• Using discussion and reflection to set specific learning goals and planning steps to achieve them 
• Contributing to shared problem-solving by building on others’ ideas and making decisions using collaborative language 
• Justifying learning choices using strategic oral language 
• Using contextually appropriate language to describe their emotions and reactions to learning experiences and explaining how those emotions influenced their thinking or actions 

• Using discussion and reflection to monitor their progress and explaining how they are adapting their learning strategies and goals in response 
• Using empathetic language to acknowledge and articulate the emotions of others 
• Using responsive collaborative talk to co-construct solutions with peers 

During Year 4

During Year 5

During Year 6

During Year 4

During Year 5

During Year 6

Word Recognition and Reading Enrichment 

Decoding 

• Decoding a multi-syllable word can occur at the letter-sound (grapheme–phoneme) level and syllable level, and can involve using knowledge of meaningful word parts (morphemes) and word origins. 
• The number of syllables in a word is the same as the number of vowel sounds (phonemes). 
• A multi-syllable word can have even emphasis on each syllable (e.g. fan-tas-tic) or one syllable can have emphasis and others not (e.g. buck-et, a-bout). 
• In a multi-syllable word, the vowel in the syllable without emphasis will be a schwa sound. 
• A schwa sound is a weak vowel sound (phoneme), often resembling short /i/ or short /u/, where the spelling does not match the vowel phoneme. 
• Multi-syllable words can be broken down into parts with their own meaning (morphemes) to support decoding. 
• Word origins (etymology) can support decoding by helping readers understand and recognise spelling and pronunciation. 

• Decoding multi-syllable words by applying their knowledge of English and te reo Māori: 
  • phonics  
  • syllables 
  • morphemes  
  • word origins 

Fluency 

• Reading comprehension depends on reading fluently with accuracy, natural pace, automaticity, and expression. 
• Reading comprehension can be negatively affected by reading at a rate that is too fast or too slow. 
• Reading with expression involves responding to punctuation, sentence structure, and language features. 

• Reading year-level texts accurately and expressively, including correct pronunciation of kupu Māori, reflecting understanding of the text while maintaining a natural pace of reading, at oral fluency rates appropriate for Year 4 students

• Reading year-level texts accurately and expressively, including correct pronunciation of kupu Māori, reflecting understanding of the text while maintaining a natural pace of reading, at oral fluency rates appropriate for Year 5 students 

• Reading year-level texts accurately and expressively, including correct pronunciation of kupu Māori, reflecting understanding of the text while maintaining a natural pace of reading, at oral fluency rates appropriate for Year 6 students 

Teaching Considerations: Fluency 

All years 

• Information about Oral Reading Fluency (ORF) assessments that are scored based on ORF norms for each year is available on Tāhūrangi. 
• All te reo Māori grapheme-phoneme correspondences have been included in the teaching sequence for Years 2-3. Some students may still need support to correctly pronounce the /ng/ sound which is similar to the English /ng/ in ‘sing’; a common mistake is pronouncing <ng> as it appears in the word ‘finger’, which should be explicitly addressed during teaching. Another common mistake is pronouncing <au> like the /ow/ as in town when it sounds more like the /ow/ in snow. 
• It is important to note that there are unique dialects across iwi and regions with differences in pronunciation and vocabulary. While teachers are not expected to teach these dialects, understanding that some learners may pronounce kupu Māori in ways that align with their whakapapa is key to fostering inclusive and respectful language practices. 

Developing confident readers 

• Strategies for selecting texts based on personal interest include thinking about likes and dislikes, looking at the cover and title, asking other people for recommendations (perhaps as part of a classroom reading community), and choosing texts that spark curiosity. 
• Reading stamina supports academic success and enjoyment of reading. 
• Reading stamina is supported by choosing texts that are high interest and developed by slowly building up reading time. 

• Using strategies for identifying and selecting texts based on their interests 
• Identifying their strengths and successes 
• Reading for longer periods by choosing familiar or interesting texts and using strategies to stay focused, such as finding a quiet space and setting reading goals 

Comprehension 

Vocabulary 

• Knowledge of meaningful parts of words (morphemes) and word origins (etymology) can help with working out a word’s meaning. 
• Meaningful parts of words (morphemes) include base words, roots, and affixes. 
• Affixes are meaningful parts of words (morphemes) that are added to a base word or root and include prefixes and suffixes. 
• A base word can stand alone, and affixes can be added to change the meaning or how it is used in a sentence. 
• A root or root word typically requires affixes to form a complete word and is often derived from Greek or Latin origins. 
• The meaning of unfamiliar words can be worked out by using explicit and implied information from surrounding words, sentences, and ideas in the text. 
• Text glossaries can support pronunciation and understanding of kupu Māori in New Zealand texts, such as those in school journals. 
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• Inferring from the context and using a developing knowledge of morphemes to determine the meaning of words with an affix 
• Using knowledge from other Year 4 learning areas and topics to determine the meaning of root and base words, whole words, and phrases in a text 
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• Inferring from the context and using an increasing knowledge of morphemes to independently determine the meaning of words with more than one affix  
• Using knowledge from other Year 5 learning areas and topics to determine the meaning of root and base words, whole words, and phrases in a text 
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• Independently inferring from the context and knowledge of morphemes to understand challenging words 
• Using knowledge from other Year 6 learning areas and topics to determine the meaning of base words, whole words, and phrases in a text 
• Identifying idioms and expressions from their own and others’ cultures 

• There are some phrases and sayings, called idioms, that rely on shared cultural knowledge to understand their meaning (e.g. ‘bring a plate’). 

Teaching Considerations: Vocabulary 

All years 

• Explicitly teach vocabulary that is at students’ age-appropriate, oral-language levels, rather than at their decoding levels. Encourage them to proactively ask questions about unfamiliar words.  
• New vocabulary learning will centre on discipline-specific words and words that express abstract concepts. In addition, English language learners and students with language-related learning challenges will benefit from explicit teaching and incidental support for some common, everyday vocabulary. 

Text form, structure, style, and features 

• Understanding the structure of a text and the way language is used helps with understanding that text. 
• Narrative texts: 
  • often begin by introducing the setting and characters, develop through a problem or goal and the actions to address it, and end with a resolution 
  • may be divided into chapters 
  • include dialogue and sensory words or phrases that describe how things look, sound, smell, taste or feel. 
• Information texts: 
  • introduce a topic, organise ideas clearly, and often have visual features such as headings and diagrams 
  • include language features such as precise and topic-related vocabulary. 
• Persuasive texts: 
  • present a series of arguments with supporting facts and details, and end with a strong conclusion  
  • use emotive language.  
• Poems: 
  • are written in lines and stanzas and often have rhyming words or a rhythm 
  • use figurative language, which involves using words creatively to evoke feelings, create strong images, and make writing more interesting and expressive. 
• Visual features such as diagrams, illustrations, and graphs help with understanding the information in a text. 
• Organisational features in texts such as contents, index, glossary, headings and sub-headings help with reading a text. 
• Authors make deliberate choices about specific words, structure, and visuals to guide how audiences understand and respond to the text. 

• Texts can be compared — examining their structure, language, and visual features — to understand the similarities and differences in style and purpose. 
• Media refers to different ways of communicating information and stories to people — including through newspapers, websites, television, radio, and social media — and media texts are created to inform, entertain, or influence audiences. 
• Digital media texts use features such as images, audio, video, print, and hyperlinks to communicate meaning, and are accessed through digital devices. 
• Authors may use persuasive techniques such as emotional appeal, exaggeration, repetition, or rhetorical questions to influence the audience. 

• Identifying the structure used in a text and how this is used to communicate ideas clearly 
• Exploring how authors use language for effect, including both literal language (which means exactly what it says) and figurative language, to create mood, emphasise ideas, or convey deeper meaning 
• Identifying specific language and visual features and explaining how they impact the audience 

• Exploring how authors use structure, language, and text features to communicate ideas clearly and support their purpose 
• Explaining how authors use language to create impact, including how literal language communicates facts or direct meaning, and how figurative language adds depth, emotion, or imagery to a text 

• Identifying and comparing how effectively different texts use structure, language, and visual features to suit their purpose and audience 
• Explaining how authors use language to create meaning and impact  
• Explaining how features such as images, sound, and layout are used in media texts to inform, entertain, or influence the audience 
• Explaining how digital features help communicate meaning and support understanding in digital media texts 
• Identifying persuasive techniques and explaining how these techniques are used to influence the audience 

Comprehension strategies 

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• Reading involves checking for understanding before, during, and after reading texts. 
• Meaning can become unclear for different reasons when reading across a range of texts, and readers use a variety of supporting strategies (e.g. annotating, rereading, adjusting reading rate, asking and answering questions, and visualising) to monitor and restore their understanding.  
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• Monitoring and confirming their understanding across a range of texts and sources of information by annotating, rereading, adjusting their reading rate, asking and answering questions, and visualising 

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• An inference is an understanding formed by the reader combining information in the text and their own prior knowledge and ideas. 
• Making connections within a text involves identifying how ideas, events or characters relate to each other to deepen understanding of the text.  
• Summarising helps readers understand and remember ideas by condensing what the text says into a shorter form, focusing on the most important information. 
• Drawing conclusions involves interpreting what the whole text suggests, using both stated and implied information to form a supported statement — a conclusion that is clearly expressed and backed by evidence from the text.
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• Inferences are strengthened by identifying and using explicit and implicit evidence from within the text, alongside prior knowledge and ideas. 
• Summarising involves identifying and selecting key details, then organising them to show how ideas are connected and what matters most in the text. 
• Drawing a supported conclusion involves using key details and implied information to explain what the text means or what the author wants the reader to understand.
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• Inferences can be justified and refined by comparing interpretations and evidence with others.
• Summarising involves identifying how ideas or themes are developed across the whole text, and organising key details to show how ideas build, shift, or connect to reveal the overall meanings and messages.
• Drawing conclusions involves interpreting key details and implied information to make a reasoned statement about the whole text — a statement that uses evidence from the text, shows logical thinking or personal judgement, and connects the meaning to broader ideas, concepts, or the author’s intent.

• Making predictions, inferences, and connections within the text, using information from the text and prior knowledge and ideas 
• Summarising a text by providing the key details in sequence, explaining how the details support the meanings and messages of the text  
• Identifying key details and implied information in the text to draw a simple, supported conclusion 

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• Making inferences, using explicit and implicit evidence from the text (including quotes or references to images) and prior knowledge, to extend the understanding of a text and the author’s purpose 
• Summarising a text by organising key details to show how the ideas and messages are introduced and connected across the text 
• Identifying and interpreting key details and implied information to draw a supported conclusion about the meaning of the text or the author’s intended message 
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• Making inferences using explicit and implicit evidence, justifying the inferences using evidence from the text, and comparing their inferences with the interpretations of others
• Summarising a text by identifying how the key ideas or messages develop across the whole text and organising key details to show how ideas build, shift, or connect to reveal deeper meanings
• Interpreting key details and implied information to draw a reasoned conclusion about the whole text that is supported by evidence, reflects thoughtful analysis, and connects the messages and meaning to broader ideas, concepts, or the author’s purpose

Teaching Considerations: Comprehension strategies 

All years 

• Activating prior knowledge and building background knowledge (including key vocabulary) before reading improves students’ ability to comprehend the text. The most effective way to build background knowledge is through the teaching of content from other learning areas. 
• Comprehension strategies are taught and revisited in the context of reading texts and used together. They are tools to support students to make sense of complex ideas and texts and build knowledge, not goals in themselves. Using strategies, such as summarising, also supports retention of what students have read.

Critical Analysis 

Context and purpose 

• Texts are created to express ideas, share feelings, or persuade audiences to think or act in certain ways. 
• Texts can portray people, places, and ideas in different ways depending on what the author wants the audience to feel or think. 
• The same topic can be presented in different ways depending on the author’s purpose and intended audience. 

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• Authors write with specific audiences and purposes in mind, and make deliberate choices to communicate particular ideas, messages, or viewpoints. 
• Bias can be present in texts, and authors may include or exclude information to support their viewpoint or argument.  
• Digital media texts are created by people or organisations with different purposes and not all information online is accurate, fair, or trustworthy. 
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• Identifying how people or places are presented in a text and explaining how that influences the audience’s point of view 

• Comparing how people, places, or ideas are represented in different texts and explaining how these representations influence the audience 

• Identifying bias in a text by recognising when an author presents only one side of an issue or omits key information to influence the audience 
• Considering who created a digital media text, why it was made, and whether the information can be trusted 

• Some texts, such as pūrākau (traditional Māori stories and oral histories) are passed down to share cultural knowledge, explain relationships with the natural world, and guide how people live and relate to others and to self. 

• Identifying how people, places, or the natural world are portrayed in pūrākau and considering the messages these portrayals may convey 

Interpretations and connections 

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• Readers can relate texts to their own knowledge, experiences, and cultural understandings by identifying relevant connections within and between texts and reflecting on how these connections influence their understandings and interpretations. 
• Discussing similarities and differences in how texts are understood or viewed by others helps readers deepen their understanding of different viewpoints. 
• Responses to texts can include sharing personal thoughts and feelings about ideas in texts.  
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• Different readers may have different responses to texts and by respectfully acknowledging those differences the understanding of texts can be deepened. 
• Readers can build on others’ contributions to text discussions by making thoughtful connections, asking questions, or offering new viewpoints.  
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• Different readers may interpret and respond to texts in diverse ways, and that engaging with their viewpoints can deepen understanding and broaden their own thinking. 
• Interpretations of texts can be supported using examples or evidence from the text.  
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• Making connections within and between texts, and with their own knowledge, experiences, and cultural understandings, to discuss differences and similarities in how the texts are interpreted or viewed 
• Sharing their interpretation of ideas in texts, acknowledging that others may interpret texts differently, and considering how others’ ideas might strengthen or challenge their own 
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• Making connections within and between texts, describing how the ideas in texts connect with their own topic knowledge, lived experiences, cultural knowledge, and practices 
• Contributing to text discussions by building on others’ ideas and comparing different interpretations 
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• Making connections within and between texts, explaining how the ideas in texts connect with their own knowledge, lived experiences, cultural knowledge, and practices, considering the interpretations and ideas of others 
• Providing interpretations about how topics are addressed in texts and how messages are conveyed, providing evidence from the text and prior knowledge to support their ideas 
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During Year 4

During Year 5

During Year 6

During Year 4

During Year 5

During Year 6

Transcription Skills 

Handwriting 

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• Writing for extended periods requires stamina and fluency, which develop through regular practice and attention to comfort and posture. 
• Handwriting becomes automatic and effortless over time, allowing the writer to focus on ideas and sentence structure, rather than letter formation. 
• Fluent and legible handwriting is important for communicating clearly for all writing tasks. 
• Maintaining a comfortable and consistent posture supports focus, reduces fatigue, and enables writers to handwrite for longer periods. 
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• Handwriting with increasing fluency, while maintaining legibility, when writing multi-paragraph texts 
• Organising their writing environment, including their seating position and the position of their book 

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• Handwriting with ease and automaticity when writing longer texts 
• Consistently maintaining a comfortable writing posture 
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• Handwriting with ease and automaticity when writing for multiple purposes throughout the school day 
• Consistently maintaining a comfortable writing posture when handwriting 
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Teaching Considerations: Handwriting 

All years 

• If handwriting difficulties persist after an extended period of appropriate instruction, consider using assistive technologies to support composition. 
• Guidance about teaching handwriting is available on Tāhūrangi. 

Keyboarding 

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• Efficient keyboarding begins with placing both hands in their home position on the middle row of the keyboard and then learning the correct finger for each key to reduce errors and increase typing speed. 
• The Shift key is used to access capital letters and additional punctuation. 
• Maintaining a comfortable and consistent posture supports focus, reduces fatigue, and enables writers to type for longer periods. 
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• Using efficient keyboarding to develop speed and accuracy 
• Consistently maintaining a comfortable writing posture when using a keyboard 
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Spelling 

[The content within <> is the grapheme and within // is the phoneme]

• Accurate spelling means breaking words into syllables and morphemes, then listening for each phoneme in the syllable and choosing the correct grapheme to represent it.
• The same phoneme can be spelt in different ways.
• A prefix is a meaningful part added to the beginning of a word, which has a consistent spelling pattern and changes the meaning of the word. 
• A suffix is a meaningful part added to the end of a word, which has a consistent spelling pattern and can change the word type (e.g. change the verb ‘teach’ to the noun ‘teacher’).
• Prefixes and suffixes can affect the spelling of the root word.
• A contraction is the shortened form of two combined words.
• Contractions follow predictable spelling patterns by leaving out certain letters and replacing them with an apostrophe.

• Spelling words with: 
  • <ea>, <ey> representing /long a/ 
  • <y>, <ey> representing /long e/ 
  • <igh>, <y>, <ie> representing /long i/ 
  • <oe> representing /long o/ 
  • <ew>, <ue> representing /oo/ as in ‘mood’ 
• Spelling words with: 
  • soft c: <c> representing /s/ 
  • soft g: <g> representing /j/ (both usually followed by the letter ‘e’, ‘i’, or ‘y’) 
• Spelling words with prefixes (un–, dis–, re–) and suffixes (–est, –ful, –less) 
• Spelling contractions for two-word phrases ending with have, would, will (e.g. ‘I’ve’, ‘he’d’, ‘she’ll’)

• Spelling words with: 
  • <eigh> representing /long a/ 
  • <ie> representing /long e/ 
  • <ough> representing /long o/ 
  • <ue> representing /long u/ 
  • <aw> and <au> representing /or/ 
• Spelling words with prefixes (semi–, sub–, mis–, multi–, pre–) and suffixes (–tion, –sion, –cian) 
• Spelling contractions correctly 

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• Spelling words with less-common vowel and consonant graphemes (e.g. <ough>, <eigh>, <aigh>, <augh>, <kn>, <mb>, <sc> as /s/, <wr> as /r/), noting the unusual correspondences and where these occur in the word 
• Using the three different spellings for the /air/ phoneme: <air>, <are>, <ear> 
• Spelling words with prefixes indicating number (e.g. uni–, bi–, tri–, dec–) and suffixes that change words into a noun (e.g. –logy, –ism, –ment) and demonstrating understanding of their meanings 
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• Apostrophes are used to show that something belongs to someone or something (as well as for contractions). 

• Where the apostrophe is placed depends on whether the noun is singular or a plural ending in ‘s’. 

• Adding an apostrophe to show singular possession (e.g. ‘the dog’s bowl’) 

Spelling words with apostrophes to show singular and plural possession, adding a possessive apostrophe after the ‘s’ if a plural noun ends in ‘s’ (e.g. ‘the boys’ sister’) 

Spelling words with apostrophes to show possession 

• A homophone is a word that sounds the same as another word but has a different meaning and usually a different spelling. 
• Spelling homophones correctly is important for clarity. 

• Using common homophones correctly (e.g. correctly distinguishing between ‘their’, ‘there’, and ‘they’re’; ‘your’ and ‘you’re’; and ‘we’re’ and ‘where’) 

• Using less-common homophones correctly, (e.g. correctly distinguishing between ‘queue’ and ‘cue’; ‘minor’ and ‘miner’; ‘you’ and ‘ewe’) 

• There are specific spelling conventions for adding suffixes to root words. 

• Adding a vowel suffix to one-syllable CVC words by doubling the final consonant (e.g. ‘hop’ ➝ ‘hopping’) 

• Either keeping the ‘y’ or changing to an ‘i’ when adding a suffix 

• Spelling plurals of words ending in ‘f’ or ‘fe’ by changing the ‘f’ or ‘fe’ to ‘ves’ (e.g. ‘leaf’ ➝ ‘leaves’, ‘knife’ ➝ ‘knives’) 

• Words ending in a consonant followed by
  –le have a predictable spelling pattern. 
• When the first syllable of a word ending in –le is closed (a short vowel followed by a consonant), the final consonant is doubled before adding
  –le (e.g. ‘rip’ ➝ ‘ripple’). 
• When the first syllable of a word ending in –le is open (ends in a vowel with a long vowel sound), –le is added directly after the consonant (e.g. ‘ta’ ➝ ‘table’). 

• Using the correct spelling pattern for words ending with a consonant and ‘–le’ (e.g. ‘table’) 

Teaching Considerations: Spelling 

All years 

• Teach students groups of words that share the same grapheme-phoneme correspondences or morphological elements. 

Composition 

Audience, purpose, and language choice 

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• A text’s intended audience and purpose shape its content, structure, text type, word choices, and style.  
• Different audiences may interpret or respond to the same text in different ways, so writers need to consider the potential impact of their writing on others. 
• Vivid, emotive, or descriptive language can enhance creative writing and help engage the reader. 
• Choosing the best word helps convey an exact meaning, and words with similar meanings (e.g. ‘freezing,’ ‘frosty’, ‘chilly’, ‘cool’) can create different effects depending on the context, audience, and purpose of the writing. 
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• Identifying the audience and purpose for a text  
• Planning and writing with the audience in mind, by selecting the appropriate text type, language register, and words to best communicate the intended meaning 
• Selecting and using words and phrases appropriate to the purpose of writing 

• Planning and writing with an audience and purpose in mind so that their writing is in the most appropriate text type and style 
• Justifying their use of language register and words to best communicate the intended meaning to the intended audience  
• Considering how different audiences may be affected by the text they are creating 
• Selecting and using words and phrases that clearly express actions, feelings, situations, or conditions 

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• Planning and writing for an intended audience and purpose, making careful choices about the most appropriate text type and style, language, register, and words, and justifying these choices 
• Making deliberate choices about what content to include or leave out in the texts they create, based on their understanding of how the writing may affect others 
• Selecting and using words and phrases that clearly express differences, additions, and other logical connections 
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• Figurative language is used to purposefully create vivid images and effects that engage the reader. 
• A simile is a comparison between two things using ‘like’ or ‘as’.  
• A metaphor is a direct comparison that says one thing is another.  
• Imagery is descriptive language that helps the reader imagine what something looks, sounds, feels, smells, or tastes like.  
• Personification gives human actions or feelings to non-human things.  
• Alliteration is the repetition of the same sound at the beginning of words. 

• An idiom is a common phrase that means something different from the literal words. 

• Using figurative language, such as similes and metaphors, to create vivid images and engage the reader 

• Deliberately and carefully selecting and using literary devices, including simile, metaphor, and personification, to create vivid images and effects to engage the reader 

• Deliberately selecting and using a range of literary techniques, including imagery, personification, figurative language, alliteration, and idioms, to meet the purpose of the writing and engage the reader 

• Explaining how the devices they have used help create meaning for the intended audience 

Sentence structures, grammar, and punctuation 

• A fragment is an incomplete sentence because it lacks something important, such as a subject or verb.
• A run-on sentence happens when two or more complete thoughts that could stand alone as separate sentences are joined without proper punctuation or conjunctions.

• Independent clauses can stand alone as complete sentences, while dependent clauses cannot. 

• An adverb is a word that adds detail to a verb, an adjective, or another adverb by describing how, when, where, or to what extent something happens.
• An adverbal phrase is a group of words that acts like an adverb.
• Clauses contain a subject and a verb, while adverbial phrases do not.

• Identifying fragments and run-on sentences 

• Identifying dependent and independent clauses 

• Explaining the difference between a clause and an adverbial phrase and identifying these in a variety of sentence structures 

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• Different sentence structures and types can be used to enhance the impact of a text. 
• A short, simple sentence can add impact and intensity. 
• A complex, expanded sentence can add description and detail. 
• Phrases are groups of words that work together but do not contain both a subject and a verb so cannot stand alone (e.g. ‘full of energy’, ‘in the morning’, ‘under the table’). 
• Phrases can be inserted into sentences in different positions (beginning, middle, or end).  
• Varying the position of phrases adds interest. 
• Writers can experiment with the way sentences are structured by saying them, to see how they sound, before writing them down. 
• Writers combine a variety of sentence lengths and types in a piece of writing to keep it engaging and avoid sounding repetitive. 
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• Combining sentences orally, inserting phrases, and varying the position of the phrase 
• Using a range of sentence structures and types to suit the purpose of the writing and enhance its impact 

• Combining sentences orally to create a range of structures and identifying the impact of the different structures 
• Using a range of sentence structures and types to suit the purpose of the writing, avoiding repetition of certain structures 

• Combining sentences orally to create a range of structures, choosing their preferred structure and justifying their choice 
• Using a range of sentence structures and types, rearranging the order of clauses and phrases for optimal effect 

• Expanding sentences improves writing by adding detail, clarifying meaning, and making it more precise and engaging. 
• An adverbal phrase is a group of words that acts like an adverb. 
• An adverbial phrase expands a sentence by providing more information about how, when, where, or to what extent something happened. 

• Expanding sentences using adverbial phrases 

• Expanding sentences using adverbial phrases and appositives 

• Expanding sentences using adverbial and adjectival phrases and appositives 

• An appositive is a word or phrase that gives more information about a noun by renaming or explaining. 

• An adjectival phrase is a group of words that describes a noun by giving more information about it, often answering questions such as ‘what kind?’ or ‘which one?’. 

• Understanding and consistently applying the knowledge they already have about correct beginning and ending sentence punctuation helps make writing clearer and easier for others to read and understand. 

• Using beginning and ending sentence punctuation correctly and consistently throughout multi-paragraph texts 

• Commas are used to separate two independent clauses when they are joined by a conjunction. 
• Commas follow adverbs or adverbial phrases at the start of sentences, improving flow and readability. 

• Commas are used with appositives to separate extra information about a noun, helping the sentence stay clear and easy to understand. 

• Using commas correctly with independent clauses, adverbs, and adverbial phrases, with some support 

• Using commas correctly with independent clauses, adverbs and adverbial phrases, and appositives, with some support 

• Independently using commas correctly with independent clauses, adverbs and adverbial phrases, and appositives 

• Speech marks (quotation marks) are used to show exactly what someone is saying. 
• Punctuation, such as commas, full stops, question marks, and exclamation marks, is placed inside the speech marks when it is part of the spoken words. 
• Each new speaker’s words should start on a new line to help readers follow who is speaking. 

• Using speech marks and commas correctly for direct speech, with some support 

• Using speech marks, commas, and other associated punctuation correctly for direct speech, with some support 

• Using speech marks, commas, and other associated punctuation correctly for direct speech, independently 

Writing to entertain 

• Texts to entertain include poetry and narratives (e.g. stories, fairy tales, diaries, and traditional tales).
• Narratives generally follow a predictable structure, which begins by introducing the setting and characters, develops through a problem or goal and the actions taken to address it, and ends with a resolution.
• Narratives are driven by what the character wants or needs, and how they try to achieve it.
• Time connectives are words or phrases (such as ‘first’, ‘after that’, or ‘meanwhile’) that show when something is happening/has happened and help link events in order to make writing easier to follow.
• Dialogue is a conversation between two or more characters.
• Dialogue is used in narratives to show relationships, reveal feelings, and move the story forward.
• Sensory details are words or phrases that describe how things look, sound, smell, taste, or feel, helping the reader imagine the scene more clearly (e.g. ‘the crunchy leaves’, ‘a sweet smell’, ‘a loud bang’).
• Poetic language, devices, and structures include sensory language, rhyme, and stanzas.

• Writing texts to entertain that:
  • reflect personal experiences and knowledge
  • contain narrative elements: character, setting, problem/purpose, plan, action, resolution
  • begin to include paragraphs to organise events
  • include time connectives
  • begin to include dialogue
  • begin to include sensory details
  • describe characters’ thoughts and feelings
  • provide a sense of closure
  • include poetic language, devices, and structures

• Writing texts to entertain that: 
  • reflect personal experiences and knowledge
  • contain narrative elements: character, setting, problem/purpose, plan, action, resolution
  • are organised into paragraphs
  • include time connectives
  • include sensory details to make their writing vivid and build the characters
  • include dialogue
  • provide a conclusion that follows naturally from the preceding events
  • include poetic language, devices, and structures

• Writing texts to entertain that:
  • reflect personal experiences and knowledge
  • contain narrative elements: character, setting, problem/purpose, plan, action, resolution
  • are well structured into paragraphs 
  • develop the plot using transitional words or phrases
  • develop characters by including actions and feelings
  • may include shifts in time and several settings
  • include sensory details to build character and setting for effect
  • provide a sense of closure that ends the story effectively
  • include poetic language, devices, and structures

Writing to inform 

• Texts to inform include reports, newspaper articles, biographies, and explanations. 
• Informative texts introduce a topic and organise ideas clearly, grouping related information into paragraphs. 
• Linking words and phrases connect ideas, helping the writing flow smoothly.  
• Precise and topic-related vocabulary makes writing clearer and more informative, especially when explaining facts and ideas.  
• Informative texts end with a concluding statement, which wraps up the topic and reinforces the main idea. 
• Informative texts often include visual features (e.g. illustrations, diagrams, photos, maps, and graphs).  

• Writing texts to inform that: 
  • reflect personal experiences and knowledge 
  • introduce a topic, and group information together using simple paragraphs 
  • begin to include linking words and phrases (e.g. 'also', 'another', 'together with') 
  • include topic-related vocabulary 
  • have a concluding statement 

• Writing texts to inform that: 
  • reflect personal experiences and knowledge 
  • begin to introduce some simple visuals to support meaning (drawings, photos) 
  • develop the topic with facts and related examples 
  • include precise and domain-specific vocabulary 
  • provide concluding sentences related to the information 

• Writing texts to inform that: 
  • reflect personal experiences and knowledge 
  • introduce a topic clearly, and group related information logically into paragraphs 
  • include headings and visual features to support the meaning of their writing 
  • develop the topic with facts, definitions, details, and examples that support the main idea 
  • include precise language and domain-specific vocabulary 
  • begin to include words and phrases to clarify, illustrate, or compare ideas (e.g. ‘especially’, ‘for example’, ‘in contrast’) 
  • provide concluding sentences related to the information or explanation 

Writing to persuade 

• Texts to persuade include letters, advertisements, reviews, speeches, discussions, and arguments, and often explore social issues that are topical for students. 
• Persuasive texts introduce a topic and clearly state an opinion or position. 
• Paragraphs group related ideas and reasons, helping to organise arguments logically and build a convincing case. 
• Linking words and phrases connect opinions with reasons and examples, making the writing flow smoothly. 
• Persuasive writing ends with a concluding statement or paragraph, which reinforces the position and leaves a strong final impression. 

• Writing texts to persuade that: 
  • reflect personal experiences and knowledge 
  • introduce a topic and state their opinion 
  • organise writing into one or more paragraphs, with supporting reasons for their opinion 
  • begin to include some linking words and phrases (e.g. ‘because’, ‘for example’, ‘also’) to connect their opinions with the reasons 
  • provide a concluding statement 

• Writing texts to persuade that: 
  • reflect personal experiences and knowledge 
  • introduce a topic and state an opinion on it, using the first person  
  • organise writing into two or more paragraphs, grouping related opinions and reasons 
  • support opinions with facts and details 
  • use linking words and phrases (e.g. ‘in addition’, ‘for instance’) to connect the opinion with the reasons 
  • provide concluding sentences related to the opinion 

• Writing texts to persuade that: 
  • reflect personal experiences and knowledge 
  • introduce a topic and clearly state a position taken on it  
  • organise writing into three or more paragraphs that have logically grouped ideas 
  • order ideas/paragraphs that are supported by facts/details from strongest to weakest  
  • include emotive words and phrases to persuade the reader to adopt their position 
  • include a range of linking words (e.g. ‘consequently’, ‘specifically’) to link the opinion and reasons 
  • provide a concluding paragraph related to the position taken on the topic 

• Persuasive writing can include the use of emotive words and phrases to convince readers. 

Writing Processes 

Planning 

• Organisers (e.g. graphic organisers or mnemonics) help plan and structure writing clearly by supporting thinking before and during the writing process. 
• Different writing tasks suit different organisers because of variations in text purposes and structures. 

• Using organisers to organise and plan writing 

• Using organisers suitable to the text structure to organise and plan writing 

• Choosing and using the most appropriate graphic organiser or mnemonic for the writing task 

• Making notes reduces information into key words and phrases to capture the most important ideas. 

• Organising notes into categories helps make sense of key information. 

• Making notes, reducing information into key words and phrases 

• Making notes, organising key information into categories 

• Making notes by gathering key information from a range of print and digital sources and organising it into categories 

• Setting specific writing goals helps writers improve their writing by focusing on what they want to get better at. 
• Reflecting on their writing content and process helps writers understand what worked well and what they can improve. 

• Setting and working towards specific writing goals based on reflection on their own writing content and processes 

Drafting 

• Notes and key words from planning need to be turned into complete sentences that clearly explain ideas. 
• A well-structured non-fiction paragraph may include a topic sentence, detail sentences, and a concluding sentence. 
• A topic sentence introduces the main idea.  
• A detail sentence explains the idea.  
• A concluding sentence sums up the idea. 
• A well-structured fiction paragraph may include a clear focus on a moment or event, descriptive language to build character or setting, and a sense of progression or change. 
• A well-structured poem may include a central idea or image, and poetic devices (e.g. rhythm or figurative language) that contribute to the overall mood or meaning of the poem.  

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• Organised notes can be grouped into paragraphs based on categories or ideas. 
• A multi-paragraph non-fiction text may include sub-topics. 
• A multi-paragraph fiction text may include an orientation, a series of events that build tension, and a resolution that brings the story to a close. 
• A poem with multiple stanzas may separate ideas, images, or emotions into distinct sections. 
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• Linking words and phrases help connect paragraphs and create cohesion across the whole text. 
• Different writing purposes require different text structures, which may include headings and subheadings or separate stanzas.
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• Transferring ideas from planning organisers or mnemonics into sentences 
• Writing a non-fiction paragraph that has a topic sentence, detail sentences, and a concluding sentence 
• Writing a fiction paragraph or a poem stanza that has a clear focus and uses descriptive or figurative language  
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• Transferring organised information from planning into draft paragraphs for each category or idea 
• Writing multi-paragraph non-fiction texts which include an introduction, sub-topics, and a conclusion 
• Writing multi-paragraph fiction texts that include an orientation, a series of events that build tension, and a resolution that brings the story to a close 
• Writing poems that may include multiple stanzas that separate ideas, images, or emotions into distinct sections 

• Transferring organised information from planning and ensuring there are links between paragraphs and cohesion across the text 
• Writing multi-paragraph texts for a range of purposes, organising the information and ideas to best suit their intended purpose, using headings and subheadings appropriately 
• Writing poems and organising each poem’s ideas, images, or emotions in a way that best achieves the intended impact, which may include using multiple stanzas  

• A new paragraph is usually signalled by either leaving a line space or indenting the first line. 

• Using layout conventions to indicate paragraphs 

Revising and editing 

• Rereading each sentence and paragraph while writing ensures the writing makes sense and sounds right. 
• Making changes to texts in response to feedback can improve clarity for the intended audience. 
• Identifying and correcting grammar and meaning errors helps readers understand the writer’s message. 
• Editing includes checking that known punctuation and layout conventions have been used correctly. 
• Editing includes checking for correct spelling. 
• Dictionaries are valuable tools for finding or confirming the spellings of unknown words. 
• Giving, receiving, and responding to feedback improves writing. 

• Rereading to check at the sentence, paragraph, and whole-text level 
• Making simple revisions to their texts to improve the clarity for the intended audience and purpose (e.g. replacing words, adding sentences, using audience and peer feedback) 
• Making edits to draft paragraphs using known punctuation 
• Using a word card or simple dictionary to find the spellings of unknown words 
• Giving feedback to and receiving feedback from peers 

• Reading and checking continuously while writing 
• Making revisions to the content of draft texts to improve clarity and focus for the intended audience and purpose (e.g. seeking audience and peer feedback and deleting or improving words, phrases, or sentences) 
• Noticing errors in grammar and meaning and making corrections as they write, with support from the teacher 
• Making edits to draft multi-paragraph texts using known punctuation and layout conventions 
• Using a simple or online dictionary to find the spellings of unknown words 
• Seeking and responding to audience and peer feedback 

• Independently reading and checking continuously while writing, throughout the school day across all learning areas 
• Making revisions at the word, sentence, and text structure levels, with the purpose and audience in mind 
• Noticing errors in grammar and meaning and independently making corrections as they write 
• Making edits to improve the clarity of a range of texts using known punctuation and layout conventions 
• Using a physical or online dictionary to find or confirm the spellings of unknown words 
• Selectively accepting or rejecting audience and peer feedback and justifying their decision